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Music Notation for People with a Severe Visual Impairment

Summary: Discussion of alternatives to braille notation, including graphic and tactile

• 1. Introduction
• 2. The Present Position
• 3. Alternatives to Braille
• 4. Braille Music
• 5. Conclusion
• 6. References and Bibliography

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1. Introduction

1.1 In this document we will consider means of representing music for visually impaired people other than in print. This does not mean that the special music-notational needs of those who are partially sighted have been overlooked--there are a number of important issues here that I intend to address in due course--it is just that the position of people who cannot access music even in large print is, by common consent, in need of urgent review

1.2 We will begin briefly by examining the current state of affairs, and try to understand things are as we find them today. This analysis will enable us to identify areas in which developments are necessary, and propose appropriate courses of action to meet these needs.

1.3 It is important to remember that this is intended as a discussion document: I hope that the ideas mooted below may provoke an informed debate on the future of music literacy visually impaired people as we start planning for the 21st century.

2. The Present Position

2.1 First, let us put the matter of print notation in perspective. When one considers music worldwide, the relative unimportance of musical literacy is striking: we may surmise that countless thousands of pieces are performed every day without recourse to any form of notation, as the vast majority of those involved with music rely on the aural transfer of information. In such traditions, only the essence of a piece is carried from one rendition to another, new performers delighting in changing what they have learnt by listening (see, instance, Abrahams and Foss, 1968).

2.2 This is not to belittle the status of the notational systems that have developed, however For example, in the Far East, especially in China, Korea, Japan and India, music has traditionally been written using symbols for pitch that are derived from literary script, with the occasional additional sign for duration, dynamics and special effects, such as the manner in which a stringed instrument is to be plucked or a drum beaten, In the West, although music notation has a long history going back at least as far as the Greeks, who wrote music down by means of letters, our modern system of notation dates only from the early 17th century. Prior to this, notational systems had been employed that differ from our present one in respect either of the indication of rhythm, notated mensurally, or that of pitch, shown in tablatures. (See Apel,1969).

2.3 Having once developed in our musical culture, notation has achieved great importance in certain areas. The length and complexity of many ’classical’ works, for example, from the Eroica symphony of Beethoven to Mahler’s 9th, and from Mozart’s Magic Flute to the Ring opera cycle by Wagner, to name but four well-known examples, contrive to make notation indispensable, both from the point of view of the composer creating the music in the first instance (even Mozart, apparently, would think his more complicated ideas through on paper), and most certainly for those striving to perform it.

How else would a composer convey each part of the score to the large number of musicians involved in the production of an opera, for example? He or she could hardly be expected to demonstrate every line to the players and singers individually. Furthermore, the conventions of ’classical’ performance generally exalt precision and fidelity to the composer’s intentions, aims that are generally inconsonant with the objectives of those working in aural traditions.

2.4 In summary, then, the significance of notation varies from one genre to another. The ability to read music, and the much more rarely acquired skill of writing it down, may each be an imperative or an irrelevance according to one’s musical inclinations.

2.5 Let us now consider how the specific issue of music notation for visually impaired people fits into this broader scene. Clearly, circumstances in which notation is not used present no special difficulties for visually impaired musicians; in fact, those who have had little or no sight since birth or shortly afterwards might well be at an advantage due to the increased likelihood of their possessing abilities such as ’perfect pitch’ and a good memory proverbial traits whose existence is borne out by research; see, for example, Ockelford, 1988). On those occasions when sighted musicians have utilised notation, the position of their visually impaired colleagues has been less fortunate, however, and historically they have resolved the problem in one of two ways: first, by managing without notation in any guise—as performers, learning new material by ear, and, as composers, conveying their ideas solely by demonstration; and, second, by using an adapted form of what would otherwise appear in print.

2.6 At its simplest, the latter option has entailed acquiring the services of a reader or scribe, a course of action adopted in all epochs of musical literacy up to, and including, our own, by musicians ranging from the most humble village organist to an exponent of international stature such as Helmut Walcha, who died only last year. Beyond this, various attempts been made to translate music as seen into a tactile medium. During the 18th and 19th centuries, for example, Hazy (in France) and Mahony (in America) were among those to devise systems based on raised letters from the Roman alphabet, with supplementary where necessary (see Johnson, 1855). The chief drawback of such schemes was the extreme difficulty they presented to individuals attempting to write music down by hand.

This problem was overcome by those systems that were based solely on ’points’ (or ’dots’ as we know them today) such as the Tangible Musical Notation published in 1873 by Wait, then superintendent of the New York Institution for the Blind. Here, information was conveyed by combinations of eight potential dots, that were arranged in two squares and placed consecutively across the page. This method used space less efficiently than the code that had been devised some 40 years earlier by Louis Braille, however, and it was a system that finally achieved supremacy. Today, learning Braille’s code--which, a certain amount of expansion notwithstanding, has remained essentially unchanged since is inception is the only route to musical literacy that is generally accepted by visually impaired people themselves.

2.7 Despite the time-honoured effectiveness with which the braille music system can handle most traditional forms of notation, its take-up, as a percentage of all visually impaired people, is very small indeed. Partly this can be attributed to the fact that the vast majority of people who lose their sight do so in later life, when braille of any type has not usually been considered an appropriate option. But even among those who are literate in standard braille--around 19,000 adults in this country according to the recent RNIB survey Blind and partially sighted adults in Britain" (1991)--only about 300 are estimated (perhaps conservatively) to be regular users of the music code, that is to say, rather less than 2%. It could be argued that this figure is reasonable, being a fair reflection of the low incidence of music literacy in the population as a whole, were it not for the fact that among the group of visually impaired people in question it appears that certain musical abilities (as we noted above) are often highly developed, and that music seems to be especially important as a leisure activity. So how are we to account for the small number of braille music users?

2.8 The theory most often advanced is that the complexity of the present system means it can be used to full effect only by those who are

(i) very musical;

(ii) academically able; and

(iii) highly motivated.

Since the number of people possessing all three of these qualities, as well as a good memory and the tactual sensitivity and physical coordination necessary to manage braille, is small, it is inevitable that there should be correspondingly few using braille music.

2.9 It appears, moreover, that the number of braille music users is set to drop still further since only a handful of children are currently learning the system. Various reasons for this decline have been put forward:

(a) The number of children learning braille music is decreasing due to recent changes in the educational system, whereby more and more visually impaired children, particularly those who are academically able, are being educated in mainstream schools as opposed to special schools. This has the following consequences:

(b) The children taught in integrated settings--many of whom would be considered prime candidates for braille music do not have access to appropriate tuition, since most mainstream music teachers have no knowledge of the braille music code.

(ii) The children in special schools, whose teachers should be conversant with braille music, are on the whole less academically able, and the code is not a realistic option for them. Hence the few teachers of braille music that do exist and their would-be clientele have largely, though not entirely, been separated.

(b) Even in special education, braille music is not taught as widely as it should be, on account of the less than positive stance towards the code adopted by some of the music teachers working in schools for visually impaired-children. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that none of the current training courses for teachers of the visually impaired offers tuition in braille music, nor is competence in understanding and using the braille music code a mandatory requirement, even for music teachers.

(c) The wider dissemination of braille music is hindered by a shortage of up-to- date material (in braille and print) for;

(i) would-be music teachers and parents of visually impaired children; and

(ii) the children themselves.

(d) Since the number of visually impaired children with the prerequisites for learning the code (motivation, intelligence and musicality to a high degree) is falling, it is inevitable that the number learning braille music should drop too.

2.10 We will take up these issues again later when considering possible courses of action.

Meanwhile, the important point to remember is that the vast majority of people with a severe visual impairment who are unable to read large print are musically illiterate, a proportion is likely to increase in the absence of appropriate intervention.

2.11 So what is to be done? Let us start with the basic philosophical assumption that:

It is the fundamental right of all visually impaired people to have access to a form of musical literacy suited to their needs, aspirations and abilities.

2.12 Now, it may be that some people have no wish to become musically literate, for, as we observed above, the ability to read and write music plays no part in many genres.

Furthermore, there are an increasing number of visually impaired people for whom the acquisition of musical literacy to any degree would be inappropriate or even impossible on account of other learning difficulties. Nevertheless, it follows from the assumption stated that it is the duty of those music educationalists working in the field of visual impairment to ensure that as many people as possible have access to an appropriate form of musical literacy.

2.13 It is precisely this thinking that lies behind the proposals that follow. Although some of these might appear unduly radical, both in design and implication, it seems to me essential, at this preliminary stage--which, after all, seeks only to gauge opinion that no reasonable idea should be excluded. I do feel, however, that in trying to ensure the availability of musical notation for all visually impaired people, we need to be aiming at a plurality of provision. Is it not inconceivable that one form of embossed notation could possibly meet the needs of so large and diverse a group? Just consider the following scenarios:

Mrs. M., who, before losing her sight in her late 50’s, was competent in reading music in print, and now, more than ever, wishes to indulge in her hobby of playing the piano. Mrs. M. would like to check up on some of the pieces she has discovered that she only half remembers without the score as a prompt. Eventually, she would like to learn new pieces too. Unfortunately, her husband doesn’t read music, and there seems to be no-one locally who can help.

(ii) Mr. A, whose sight deteriorates in his 60’s until he can no longer manage

print. He decides to take up the keyboard, just to play a few simple tunes he has grown fond of listening to over the years. Mr. A. can’t play by ear, and would really appreciate a simple system of notation that he could use. At the moment, he has to wait for a weekly visit from his grandson, who physically shows him each time where the next few notes are.

(iii) Ms L, in her early 20’s, whose progressive medical condition has caused blindness and a physical deterioration that precludes the use of braille. Her pleasant singing voice is unimpaired, however, and she would dearly love to continue as an alto in her local Choir, but she somehow needs, access to the music before rehearsals, at which it is expected that individual parts will have been studied in advance.

(iv) K, a congenitally blind child, now 11, of average academic ability but for whom braille is proving difficult. He has a lively interest in many types of music, and, as well as playing by ear, he would much appreciate a form of notation from which he could, learn to play pieces of some harmonic complexity with as much independence as possible.

(v) D., a young child with no vision and severe learning difficulties but exceptional musical talent, for whom the simple realisation that music can be symbolised in any way at all could have enormous benefits in other areas of cognitive development.

(vi) R, a blind undergraduate of great musical and academic potential, who hopes for a combined career in performance: and teaching.

2.14 Finally, let us remember that whatever decisions are reached will only be temporary staging-posts in an ongoing process of development; for just as music, its representation in print and its realisation through technology--not to mention society’s expectations of music and musicians--are likely to remain in a state of flux, so music notation for visually impaired people, if it is to be a living, dynamic and ultimately useful thing, must continuously evolve to reflect these changes.

3. Alternatives to Braille

3.1 Let us begin by considering some of the various alternatives to braille. It will be recalled that in the last century this system was found preferable to schemes that were not based on a system of dots largely because of the difficulties of producing embossed letters and adaptations of print signs. There are two points to bear in mind here. First, that instead of treating such systems as the answer to every visually impaired person’s" music literacy needs, we would do better to regard them chiefly as a medium for reading music, which, all, is what the majority of people want. Second, that we should take into account recent technological advances that facilitate the production of tactile media, which previously would have proved unrealistically costly or difficult to manufacture. In the light of these contemporary needs and developments, it seems reasonable to open our proposals by re-examining some of the notational methods that failed to gain a foothold in times gone by.

3.2 Take, for example, the notion of representing music with raised letters. I suggest, after Jackson (1987), that this may be tried using Moon--now a widely accepted way of producing embossed literature--augmented with one or two extra signs. In fact, I am currently piloting such a scheme with a child who cannot manage braille, and the early results look promising. However, the main use of music in Moon, it seems to me, would be for people who lose their sight later in life, and who are keen to take up music, perhaps at a fairly basic level, for the first time. I imagine that there must be many in this position, for whom literacy is currently a closed book.

3.3 A simple piece might look like this (I have chosen the National Anthem, since it is so well known, starting on G octave unspecified):

Example 1 The National Anthem in Moon [The original print contains a tactile sheet]

3.4 The key signature of G, is shown by a single sharp at the beginning of the first line. Numeral sign follows (a horizontal line with a dot beneath it). introducing the time signature of 3/4. Notes are represented by letters, which may be taken to be crotchets unless followed by a dot, which fulfils the usual function of extending its parent note by a half; or a horizontal line, which increases the duration by a further crotchet. These devices may each be ’doubled’ to indicate respectively a double-dotted crotchet and a dotted minim (as in bar - a horizontal line above a smaller letter represents a quaver. Two quavers or more may grouped under a single line. The reader proceeds on the assumption that successive pitches are the nearest available bearing that letter name, in the absence of a vertical arrow, pointing up or down, such as that found at the beginning of bar 7. Barlines are represented by blank spaces; the concluding double bar by two vertical lines.

3.5 Although I would anticipate Moon being used primarily by individuals who wanted to read music rather than write it down, the Moonwriter and other developments currently under investigation at Birmingham University may make the medium more viable from this point of view. Certainly, the production of material such as that shown in Example 1 is not difficult: the Symbols were drawn using a straightforward graphics program, printed on a LaserWriter, and the results copied onto ’swell-paper’, which, when heated, produces raised lines and shapes in response to black images.

3.6 Of course, this is only one way of representing music with embossed letters. Many others are possible, and some are undoubtedly worthy of investigation. Limitations of space prevent further discussion of this issue here, however, and we move on to the idea of producing staff notation in raised form.

3.7 Again, this notion has been around for a long time, but has traditionally been difficult to realise because of the intricacies of production. While these problems could largely be overcome through the use of swell-paper, doubts remain as to the viability of producing a tactile replica of what appears in print, since many scores contain a welter of complex information in a very small area, which would surely confuse the most discerning fingertips.

Even with some degree of preliminary enlargement, and the simplification of many of the print symbols, raised staff notation is far from easy to read. Take the following example, which shows once more the tune of the National Anthem in G (beginning in the fourth octave). Here, treble clefs have been simplified somewhat, quavers are condensed into a smaller space than is customary, and crotchets and minims are reproduced without tails.

(Had they been required, I would have indicated semibreves with hollow rectangles).

Example 2 The National Anthem in simplified staff notation.

3.8 The music is still difficult to make out by touch, however, for two main reasons: first, since the stave is too deep to be examined by the pad of the finger in a single horizontal sweep, necessitating an awkward zig-zag movement as one progresses along the page; and second, because any notes placed on the stave obscure its component lines. Moreover, the score illustrated is very straightforward, comprising only a melody without any marks of expression. Large chords could in places wipe out the stave entirely, and nuances, ornaments and marks of expression could render what was already a difficult tactile pattern to follow, impossibly confusing.

3.9 Despite these difficulties, I feel that the concept of embossed staves should not be abandoned without research into other possible formats. Consider, for example, having a stave of three lines, perhaps depressed into the paper, rather than protruding from it, (I am indebted to John Etherington for this idea, who is currently pioneering the technique at Linden Lodge School in London.) sufficient to bear a range of seven notes, with special clefs being used to indicate the involved. Note-heads that were smaller and more pointed would stand out more clearly this background while obscuring lit less, although such a design would have implications production, entailing, perhaps, a vacuum-moulding process.

Still, such avenues are worth pursuing, it seems to me, since transcription in this form could be particularly appropriate for people who already have a knowledge of print notation when their sight fails them later in life.

3.10 So much for ways of realising music notation in tactile form that stand as possible alternatives to braille. These represent only one aspect of a much larger issue, however. As we have already observed, Louis Braillle’s system of embossed musical representation has remained largely the same in the last 150 years: yet music itself has moved on apace in this time, and, as a reflection of the changes that have occurred, the possibilities of print notation have been expanded beyond recognition.

3.11 Forms of notation are now commonplace that would be extremely difficult if not impossible to convey effectively in braille, and, as far as I am aware, no attempts at transcription have yet been made. Here I am referring, to ’graphic’ scores, in which prescribed characteristics of the perceived sonic medium are illustrated more or less on the page. For example, the continua of pitch and perceived time, may be represented respectively by the vertical, and horizontal dimensions of the page. Hence a constant, sustained sound would appear as a straight, horizontal line; a rising portamento as a line moving in general terms from the bottom left to the top right of the page; and fluctuations in pitch as an analogous waviness.

The problem for braille here is its essentially digital nature, for while any curve may theoretically be reducible, in the final analysis, to a series of discrete steps, such a process would run contrary to the essence of many graphic which seek to evoke a performer’s interpretation in sound of a visual phenomenon. In the case of scores such as this, then, it appears that we have no choice: new methods of tactile music transcription simply must be developed if future generations of visually impaired musicians are not to be marginalized.

3.12 Indeed, it is not just the music specialist who will suffer unless action is taken, for it seems likely that/the use of graphic notation will, from the lowest levels, be a feature of the National Curriculum guidelines. For example, at Key Stage 1, for Attainment Target 1, (Performing and Composing), we are told pupils could: "write a graphic score for a piece have composed", while at Key Stage 3, pupils could "notate a complex piece using both graphic and conventional notation" (National Curriculum Council, 1992). Such methods have, of course, long found a place in a number of public examination syllabuses, making up an important aspect of music courses from which visually impaired candidates have tended to seek exemption. In my opinion, it is imperative that we now address this issue.

3.13 In fact, I see graphic notation, in one guise or another, as a continuous provision, extending from some of the earliest stages of music education to some of the most advanced. Let us consider what this might mean. Take, for example, a visually impaired youngster with severe learning diffculties who has a strong interest in music--a characteristic that is not uncommon within this group. Here, we could use graphic notation at the most basic level of all, just to indicate the presence of music. A tape cassette, for instance, could serve this purpose, acting as an ’object of reference’. Through repeated association, the presence of the tape would come to mean the hearing of music. At a later stage, a suitably modified tape (perhaps characteristed by a particular texture) could be made to represent a certain piece. Further pieces could subsequently be associated with other tapes, suitably individualised.

Beyond this, one could aim at removing the cassettes, leaving only the textures to stand for pieces of music in their own right. Such methods could provide the youngster concerned with his or her first conscious inkling of symbolic representation, a fundamental step on the educational road that most of us took at an early age without the need for such highly specialized intervention.

3.14 Among the multi-handicapped visually impaired (MHVI) population there are a small but significant number with keenly developed musical attributes including, for example, an excellent memory and a good sense of perfect pitch (see, for example, Neal, 1983). Here, one could envisage using graphic notation of a highly refined nature, whereby, particular pitches or tonal regions were represented by certain objects, shapes, or textures. Over a period of time; these could gradually be transformed into the characters pertaining to an established tactile medium such as Moon or braille. Again, the acquisition of the knowledge and skills necessary to use such a system evolved in the supercharged arena of motivation which music affords these youngsters could have invaluable spin-offs in other areas of cognitive development.

3.15 These are but two examples from an immense and hitherto largely unexplored field of possibilities. Whilst the education of those with severe learning difficulties is an area that has seen many positive developments in the last few years, such people, and particularly those who, by virtue of a special skill or skills, may be termed savants, can still pose their teachers a seemingly insurmountable challenge on occasions. Perhaps research into the admittedly very specialised areas of graphic notation outlined above could show us possible ways forward.

3.16 For the young person with a severe visual impairment but without the extremes of ability or inability alluded to above, having access to a form of notation equivalent to the graphic scores used by his or her seeing peers may be equally important. The essential thing here is that the child be able to create original scores as well as learning to read what others have composed. So let us consider how this might be achieved. A ’kit’ could be developed comprising a number of small objects of various shapes, sizes and textures could be attached to a base-board in a temporary fashion.

The results could then be thermoformed for posterity. Take, for example, the graphic representation shown in Example 3, which should be read with the page turned clockwise a quarter-turn. Time is depicted in what is now the horizontal dimension (going from left to right), and pitch is vertically--that is, the higher a sound, the higher its position on the sheet. The area of pitch and time with which we are concerned is distinguishable by its rough texture.

For ease of reading, this region has been marked off with thin straight lines into 18 smaller zones, each corresponding to approximately one octave and lasting two to three seconds. The 3 x 6 thus formed constitutes the ’background’ of the score upon which the sound-symbols are overlaid. There are three distinct strands to the sonic texture. At the top, a series of short, high notes descend at an increasing rate in a sequence that terminates towards the end of the third time-zone. After a break of about three seconds the short sounds begin again, starting in the upper portion of the second octave, and rising to a height just below that at which they began. In the-middle of the texture, a continuous tone rises and dips before ascending once more to join the final short sound Of the top part. The third strand also consists of discrete sounds, but rather fuller in tone (and represented by larger circles) than those above. These start low down in the second time-zone, rising in three increasing increments to the end of the fourth zone, at which point the top line takes over the ascending pattern. The bottom part concludes with three overlapping ascending sounds, widely separated in pitch.

Example 3 [tactile in the original]

3.17 The propriety of using scores such as this could be questioned on the grounds that they may not model perceived-aspects of sound for visually impaired people in a manner that is comparable to the intuitive way in which graphic scores represent music visually.

However, recent work on mental imagery in those blind since birth (see, for example, Welch, 1991) suggests that such tactile representations may indeed evoke equivalent cognitive responses to those stimulated by their print counterparts. Then, the efforts of people such as Hinton (1988) should allay fears as to the practicality of assembling and using tactile media in so advanced a form. Clearly, to make full use of diagrams of this type, scanning

and interpretive skills of a high level are required. But who is to say that such skills should not be taught? Indeed, for many children, acquiring the necessary techniques could well prove valuable in other curricular areas--if such a justification were necessary.

3.18 For those wishing to study contemporary music at a higher level, experience with materials such as those presented in Example 3 could lead to using tactile representations of published scores, some of which could be produced using swell-paper. On occasions, no modification, or a minimal amount, might be necessary. Consider, for example, the following excerpt from Stockhausen’s Sternklang (1971). Here, the disposition of two constellations ’Herkules’ and ’Corona’ are represented by dots on the page, intended to be played as notes, the size corresponding to the intensity.

Each constellation is contained within a box, and placed upon two horizontal lines, which indicate predetermined pitches. ’Herkules’ comprises five notes: the first between the lines, the second following almost immediately, above the upper line. The third is quieter and situated on the upper, the fourth of the same pitch and louder. The fifth note occurs on the lower line. ’Corona’ consists of six notes, which describe an arc starting on the upper line. Notes two, three, and six are of the same intensity, note one is rather quieter, and note five somewhat louder

Example 4: Constellations ‘Herkules’ and ‘Corona’ from ‘Sternklang’ by Stockhausen (1971) [tactile in the original].

Observe that comments such as these could well accompany the score on tape or in braille (cf. Ricker, 1981, who has studied the use of audio scripts with tactile diagrams).

3.19 Other scores may require a certain simplification and modification before being produced in tactile form, in order to make their meaning clear. For instance:

Example 5 Stockhausen: excerpt from Studie II (1954) [tactile in the original].

Here, we have another excerpt from Stockhausen, this one from the score of his second Electronic Study (1954), which, according to the composer’s preface, was the first electronic music to be published. Frequencies are represented on the vertical axis and time runs horizontally from left to right. The rectangles overlaid on the frequency/time grid correspond to the ’note-mixtures’ chosen: Here, the main simplification was to reduce fivefold the number of horizontal lines indicating different frequencies.

3.20 Beyond this, a more significant transformation of the original may be required, and reproduction may need to occur through a vacuum-moulding process, which permits a greater variety of tactual effects than swell-paper.

3.21 To sum up, the representation of music through tactile means along the lines of those suggested and demonstrated above could be of great importance for a large number of severely visually impaired people, from those striving for a basic grasp of symbolic language, or who do not wish to be excluded from certain aspects of the National Curriculum, to those who aspire to be credible participants in the contemporary music scene. Hence I see this area as one that is worthy of substantial research.

3.22 Finally, in this section, we will consider briefly the notion of ’talking scores’ taped verbal descriptions of what is on the printed page. (Alternatively, these could, of course, be presented either in braille or in Moon). Talking scores could be of immense value in their own right, it seems to me, both to enable those for whom tactile media are not a realistic option to have access to musical notation, and, for competent braillists, as a stand-in for braille when this was unavailable, or could not be produced in time. Indeed, talking scores are already used by some visually impaired musicians in this way, and on other occasions, in conjunction with braille, to reveal subtleties in the layout of the score that could never be captured satisfactorily in a purely musical code.

However one may feel about receiving musical information in this form, one has to face the fact that today an increasing number of serious musicians are consulting original sources (such as facsimiles of manuscripts) to ensure that they are interpreting the composer’s intentions as faithfully as possible, and it seems that some form of verbal description--albeit in conjunction with a tactile representational system--will in any case become a necessity if visually impaired musicians are to maintain their stature within the profession. Hence it seems to me essential that talking scores speedily become recognised and valued for what they are, not as a second-class system of notation, but as a perfectly valid--even powerful means of representing music.

What is required, yet again, is research. Potential protocols for describing music in words as efficiently and clearly as possible need to be formulated and tested, and a project run to consider production, marketing and distribution. As an example of what may be possible, consider this transcription of the opening of a talking score of Bach’s 1st Prelude from the ’48’, BWV 846 (Henle edition). Here, a consciously analytical approach is taken, which describes the music through its underlying repetitive rhythmic structure.

This, of course, represents only one method of the many that are possible. "The prelude, in C major and common time, is 35 bars long. It is dominated by a single rhythmic pattern, two beats in length, which arpeggiates an underlying five-part texture, two strands in the left hand and three in the right. A new note is sounded on every semiquaver. Each of these rhythmic cells is written thus: a minim in the bass begins on the first beat, followed after a semiquaver rest by the lower of the middle parts, comprising a dotted quaver tied to a crotchet.

Against this pair of sustained notes, after a quaver rest, the right hand enters with six semiquavers, occupying the second half of the first beat and the whole of the second, and beamed, therefore as groups of two and four. However, the pitches with which these semiquavers are realised consistently form a pattern of two groups of three the same. In each of the first 32 bars, the melodic and rhythmic pattern that makes up the first two beats is repeated exactly on beats three and four.

Here are the pitches found in bar 1: fourth octave c (minim), e (dotted quaver

tied to crotchet), g, c, e, fourth octave g, c, e, all semiquavers. Repeat for beats two and three. Bar two: fourth octave c, d, fourth octave a, d, f, fourth octave a, d,f; repeat. Bar three: third octave b, d, g, fifth octave d, f, fourth octave g, fifth octave d, f; repeat

(Observe that the octave of a given letter-name is assumed to be the one closest to the previous note mentioned, in the absence of an indication to the contrary).

3.23 This concludes our brief discussion of alternatives to braille music that might profitably be researched and developed in the near future. But what of the braille music code itself?

It is to this question that we next turn our attention.

4. Braille Music

4.1 With the number of regular users in this country put at just over 300 a low figure that seems-set to fall still further uncomfortable questions as to the justification of channeling a considerable portion of scarce resources into servicing the needs of the few visually impaired people who use the braille music code are bound to be raised, and have to be answered, it will be asked whether the present system of braille music can justifiably be kept alive, and if so, on what grounds? The answer must surely be, ’yes’ within certain stylistic confines, braille music, as a tactile medium, is currently unique in its ability to handle music of the utmost complexity, and it has the great advantage of being easy to write down at least in physical terms--by individuals. A Perkins and a sheet of paper are all that is required. Above all, braille music has a proven track record, through which some visually impaired people have been empowered to reach the highest levels in their art, both as performers and teachers. Access to the code has immeasurably enriched the lives of many amateur musicians too.

4.2 Given these assurances, it is clearly desirable that all visually impaired people who want it should have access to music in the appropriate braille code, and we need to consider how to ensure that this goal is achieved, for currently the number of users appears to-be at an undesirably low level.

4.3 We will proceed from the points made earlier (see paragraph 2.9), and by evaluating some of the modes of action that have been proposed as possible ways forward. Clearly, matters would only be helped by making competence in using the braille music code a mandatory requirement on all courses for would-be music teachers of the visually impaired. However, introducing such a regulation would be of little value in the absence of appropriate teaching resources. It may be that books such as the newly revised ’Watson’ (which originally appeared in the 1920’s) will prove to be suitable, but producing the large number of necessary exercises, with solutions would be a lengthy task nevertheless, and it would seem prudent to assess what material is currently available on a worldwide basis, with a view to adoption or adaptation if possible.

4.4 Even if the required teaching matter were produced, one should not underestimate difficulties involved both on the part of potential instructors and their students. Bearing in mind that most courses for teachers of visually impaired children are now undertaken on a part-time basis, whose pressures, combined with those of sustaining a full-time job and possible family commitments are very considerable, where is the time going to be found to learn a code that normally occupies transcribers for two years of training full-time?

4.5 A greater variety and quantity of up-to-date teaching material could also be provided for the children themselves, and for their parents and teachers (who may well be non-braillists). For the increasing number of children in integrated settings, it would seem to especially important for a scheme to be established like that already developed for use in early reading books, whereby the print notation, with additional markings where necessary, is overlaid with its braille equivalent embossed on clear plastic sheets. Thus a dual purpose would be served. First, every braille sign would be explained, unequivocally, in print, so someone with little or no knowledge of the system could assist the child on the spot; and second, material used by the visually impaired child’s sighted peers would, as far as possible, be available to him or her in braille.

4.6 It seems essential that these two goals be realised if true integration in the teaching music is to be realised. However, if a scheme such as that suggested is ever to be set, certain problems will have to be overcome first. There is the difficulty, for example, that many of the programs designed for teaching print music notation and theory would be incompatible with learning through the present braille code, whose rules of usage demand certain methodical approaches which it would be perilous to compromise. Then, there is the need for children in integrated educational settings to have instant--or near instant access to the material presented in visual form to their peers. Yet with the current pressures on the braille music transcription service, let alone those that might result from a substantially increased demand, it is difficult to see how this fundamental requirement could realistically be met.

4.7 The problem of offering highly specialised provision to children in mainstream schools is not unique to this country, and one solution that has been sought elsewhere is the establishment of vacation schemes that provide expert tuition in areas such as braille music. Comparable holiday courses could be set up here, with the possibility of added input on occasional weekends during the rest of the year. Even provision such as this, however, would fall far short of the ideal, since in my experience teaching so highly complex a subject as the braille music code would need a greater frequency of contact between teacher and pupil than such a scheme would allow, not least to sustain motivation. An alternative or additional source of help could come from a competent braille music user who happened to live locally. An initial step in this direction would be the compilation of a national directory of those who would be willing to assist.

Such people would be expected to work in-conjunction with the child’s other music teacher or teachers. If a suitably experienced individual were not to be found in the immediate district (a likely contingency outside the major conurbations), then the pupil would be faced with travelling to the nearest source of expertise. Even assuming that this was at all feasible, undue time and expense might still be incurred. The latter could be helped with the institution of a series of awards for deserving individuals, perhaps from a body such as the Gardner’s trust, who have promoted the acquisition of braille music literacy through financial incentives in the past few years.

4.8 These possibilities notwithstanding, in my opinion, it is the development and dissemination of the appropriate technology, in the form of computer hardware and software, that today represent the most promising ways of ensuring the future of braille music. There appear to be two areas that merit particular attention. One is to promote the transfer of music through electronic means. Hence a score that had been transcribed on a computer in the USA, for example, could be fed directly to an embosser in this country. Such a system gives visually impaired people immediate access to a global network of material in what would seem to be the Iogical extension of the international cataloguing of scores currently being undertaken by figures such as John Henry. The other technological development I have in mind is what may be termed a ’music workstation’ for visually impaired people, capable of receiving musical input in the form of braille, on a ’qwerty’ keyboard, or directly through a MIDl-link, and outputting it in braille, in speech (in the form of a ’talking score’), in print or in sound. Such workstations could themselves be networked to provide countrywide even worldwide access to a bank of scores and interactive teaching programs.

4.9 With the exception of the braille component, a set-up functioning as a music workstation has already been successfully developed by Dr Tom Vincent, at the Open University in conjunction with a visually impaired musician. The intricacies of the braille music code, however, and not least its partial dependence on an understanding of musical syntax, are proving resistant to computer-based logic, and despite the crucial pioneering work that is now being undertaken at Peterborough, even the most ardent optimist would have to admit that the days of fully automated computer transcription are still some way off.

4.10 In fact, I wonder if we have not grown so accustomed to viewing the problem from particular perspective how to get a computer conversant with the present system of braille music that we have failed to look at other, simpler alternatives. For example, instead of trying to foist what is partly an intuitive system onto a wholly rational machine, why don’t we instead devise a new braille music code that would be computer-friendly? Then the ’music workstation’ alluded to above could be available, one would reasonably suppose, in a comparatively short space of time. The conditions that would underlie the configuration of an appropriate new code are considered in some detail below.

4.11 Meanwhile, let us pursue our technological dreams to their natural conclusion: for with the continuing evolution of optical character recognition, it seems reasonable to assume that the goal of placing a print score under a scanner, and within minutes receiving aversion in braille, should eventually be attained. Through such means, the problem of transcription would be solved once and for all.

4.12 If all the ideas mentioned above aimed at the promotion of the present system of braille music were to be followed up, would that be the end of the story? That is to say: would all the braille users who wanted to be musically literate become braille music users? I suspect the answer to be ’no’, for the simple reason suggested by informal research: that many people who know braille don’t use the music code because they find it too complicated.

Admittedly, this supposition is a contentious one (having been debated in the literature for over a century now), and it would seem sensible, before proceeding down the lines proposed below, to resolve the issue by conducting a survey among a representative sample of braille users. But if, indeed, it is found to be true, then what is to be done?

4.13 Logically there would seem to be two alternatives. One is to amend the present braille music code; to simplify it as far as possible. However, this does not seem to be a realistic option, since many of the complexities of Louis Braille’s system, such as its celebrated inconsistencies with the English literary code, and the fact that pitch and duration are recorded in the same cell, for example, are so deeply embedded within it. Moreover, having two variants of a single scheme could reasonably be regarded as an insufferable complexity.

4.14 The second option, to create a completely new system, may be more viable, since it need be afflicted with neither of these problems. The alternative code could be so different from the present one that the two could exist side by side, if necessary, in the mind of a user with minimal confusion. Such a position would be comparable with the sighted musician who quite naturally learns to read using different clefs. That is to say: the same signs in (or braille) stand for different musical outcomes according to the clef (or code) used.

4.15 Various objections may be raised to the development of a second code. For example, it may be felt that having two systems running parallel would stretch the already limited resources available for music transcription beyond breaking point. But I would not anticipate this scenario occurring, since the new code should be so simple to use that anyone with basic knowledge of literary braille (grade I plus a few extra signs) and staff notation could become a transcriber of all but the most complex scores with only a few hours of instruction and having access to suitable reference material. Indeed, visually impaired people who wished to could themselves convert scores from the old code to the new. Finally, since the alternative scheme would be devised with computers in mind, automated transcription should be a speedy development.

4.16 Then, I have heard it said that there is no need for a simpler braille music code since anyone who can cope with the basics of literary braille should at least be capable of learning to read a few crotchets and quavers perhaps a very simple melody line. But is there really any point in acquiring so sparse a music-notational vocabulary, especially when, for the same degree of intellectual effort, a simpler code might permit one to become a fluent of far more advanced material?

4.17 Lastly, let us remember that that the idea of creating a new system is far from original - take, for instance, the scheme invented by P.T. Mayhew (one-time secretary of the music department of the RNIB), described by Sinclair Logan in the New Beacon of 1950 as more logical, more adaptable and most educationally sound. With these entirely admirable qualities in mind, let us now list the conditions under which a new system of braille music should be formulated today.

(i) It should be as easy to learn and to use as possible, especially in the early stages--for any system of braille music is bound to be difficult to use at advanced levels so it is accessible to the greatest number of severely visually impaired people.

(ii) It should be capable of being learned in stages (rather like the ’grades’ of

literary braille).

(iii) It should be able to convey at least the same range of music that is feasible through the present system, and with the same or a higher degree of fidelity to the print notation.

(iv) Consistent with these user-friendly objectives, it should be readily compatible with computer-based logic.

4.18 These conditions suggest guidelines as follows.

(i) As far as possible, the system should tie in with the literary code, and where

it does not, it should be capable of being learnt through mnemonics or through simple patterns. This should make it quick to learn and easy to recall.

(ii) Rules should be kept to an absolute minimum. This should make the system easy to use.

(iii) Dual and contextual meanings should be minimised, This should make the

system easy to understand.

(iv) The system should be free from any possible ambiguities, particularly those whose resolution depends on a knowledge of musical syntax. This should facilitate the development of the appropriate computer software to handle the code.

(v) Consistent with the above requirements, the new system should use as little space as possible. This should make it easy to manage. (Observe that greater conceptual simplicity might make the system physically quicker to use, even though more cells were taken up).

4.19 Taking all these factors into account, I would like to propose that anew system of braille music now be formulated. In devising such a scheme, it would seem sensible to start from Mayhew’s ideas mentioned above, and use these as a base from which to explore the further potential of Braille’s six-dot medium.

5. Conclusion

5.1 This document proposes various ways of improving the provision of music literacy for people with a severe visual impairment. In broad terms, it suggests that we move from current position in which there is only one system of transcription available, serving--albeit very effectively the needs of a tiny minority, to a situation in which a plurality of schemes would exist side by side, from which people could choose according to personal inclination and circumstance and, of course, dependent on the type of music to which access was required.

5.2 The proposals that are made include:

(i) A ’music workstation’, a computer system that would offer visually impaired

people a substantial degree of independence in the field of music literacy. A first stage would be a set-up capable of receiving musical input in braille or through a typewriter (or similar) keyboard, and-outputting the results in print or braille. Subsequent phases would incorporate a MIDI-controlled musical keyboard, and, ultimately, a scanner that would enable print scores to be converted directly into braille. The creation of the ’music workstation’--certainty in the foreseeable future would be dependent on the evolution of a new system of ’computer friendly’ braille music.

(ii) A new system of braille music--for those who know basic braille and would like a way of reading and writing music. As intimated above, this would greatly facilitate automated print-to-braille and braille-to-print music transcription.

(iii) Music through Moon particularly suitable for those who are unable to manage braille, and want a simple form of literacy to enable them to read music, perhaps at a fairly basic level.

(iv) Tactile graphic notation--of possible use at all levels, from those with severe learning difficulties to professionals with an interest in contemporary music.

(v) Embossed simplified staff notation--potentialy of value to those who lose their sight and are already familiar with music in print.

(vi) ’Talking scores’--of use both in conjunction with tactile means of representation, and as a self-sufficient method of conveying what appears in

print, and of potential value to all severely visually impaired people who wish to be musically literate.

5.3 In addition to these ideas, it is suggested that the position with regard to the standard system of braille music could be improved by providing a greater variety of material, particularly in the early stages, for pupils and teachers alike; through the establishment of a database of competent users who would be prepared to assist others, and linked with this a series of awards to meet the cost of tuition and travel for those who need it; by the setting up of specialist vacation schemes that would promote musical literacy among visually impaired children, particularly those being educated in mainstream schools; and through the fostering of technological developments, that would enable, for example, braille scores to be transferred electronically at an international level.

5.4 These are only proposals, and the next stage is research, to test the potential usefulness and viability of the ideas that have been put forward. Some of the necessary information will be gleaned from responses to this document, but beyond this, projects need to be set up to investigate each of the areas outlined above. Suggestions as to the way these might be undertaken are contained in a series of separate leaflets, which are intended as adjuncts to the present paper.

5.5 Comments should be addressed to:

Adam Ockelford, Music Education Advisor

RNIB National Education Centre Garrow House

190 Kensal Road London W10 5BT

Tel: 081-968 8600 Fax: 081-960 3593

6. References and Bibliography

6.1 References

Abrahams, R. and Foss, D. Anglo-American Folksong Style New Jersey: Prentice Hail, 1968.

Apel, W. Harvard Dictionary of Music London" Heinemann, 1970.

Bruce, I., McKennell, A. and Walker, E. Blind and partially sighted adults in Britain: the Survey Volume 1 London: HMSO, 1991.

Hinton, R. New ways with diagrams RNIB, 1988.

Jackson, M. The Moon system adapted for musical notation. The British Journal of Visual impairment, V:3, 1987.

Johnson, E. An Inquiry into the Musical Instruction of the Blind in France, Spain and London: John Mitchell, 1855.

Logan, S. A new music notation in braille. The New Beacon, February, 1950.

National Curriculum Council Music in the National Curriculum Consultation Report¯January, 1992.

Neal, R. An investigation of the possession of absolute pitch ability amongst children undergoing formal instrumental tuition in three schools. Unpublished manuscript, B. Diss., University of Birmingham, 1983.

Ockelford, A. Some observations concerning the musical education of blind children and those with additional handicaps. Unpublished paper given at the 32nd Conference of Society for Research in Psychology of Music and Music Education, Reading University, October, 1988.

Ricker, K. Writing audio scripts for use with blind persons. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 75:7, 1981.

Wait, W. The New York System of Tangible Music Notation New York: Bradstreet Press, 1873.

Welch, G. Visual metaphors for sound: a study of mental imagery, language and pitch perception in the congenitally blind. Canadian Surhal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 33, Special ISME Research Edition, December, 1991.

6.2 Bibliography

Aldridge, V. Moon and music notation. Letter in The British Journal of Visual Impairment, VII:l, 1989.

Bowden, R. Beginning Braille Music (2nd Edition) Canberra Blind Society, 1989.

Burrows, A. Music through Braille Alberta, Canada: MacNab, 1987.

de Garmo, M. Introduction to Braille Music Transcription Division for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Library of Congress, Washington, 1970.

Henry, J. Braille Music An International Survey National Library for the Blind, 1984.

Krolick, B. Dictionary of Braille Music Signs National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Library of Congress, Washington, 1979,

Newman, J. The tape recorder: an alternative to braille and bold note music scores. Unpublished paper held in RNIB Reference Library, 1986.

Ockelford, A. Proposals for an altemative system of braille music. Unpublished thesis, Diploma in Special Education(Visual Handicap), University of Birmingham, 1985"1987.

Ockelford, A. Objects of reference: a system to facilitate communication, understanding and remembering in multihandicapped visually impaired people. Pamphlet produced by Linden Lodge School, Wandsworth, 1991.

Ockelford, A. Music and Visually Impaired Children: Some Notes for the Guidance of Teachers RNIB, 1991.

Reuss, A. Development and Problems of Musical Notation for the Blind (translated by Ellen Kerney and Merle E. Frampton) The New York Institute for the Education of the Blind Series, Monogram Number 1,1935.

RNIB Reading by touch with the Moon method 1985.

RNIB Music Education for the Visually Handicapped Child Compilation of papers taken from the Braille Music Magazine, 1991.

Spanner, H. Revised International Manual of Braille Music Notation Paris: World Council for the Welfare of the Blind, 1956.

Watson, E. Braille Music andits Problems: A Record of Fifty-Seven Years of English Effort. RNIB, 1925.

Watson, E. "Braille" Music Notation London: Novello, 1926.

Content author: library@rnib.org.uk

Last updated: 20/11/2008 11:13