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History of the Education of the Blind

Summary: Education of blind people; blind personalities. Extracts from other publications.

By W. H. Illingworth, F.C.T.B.

Superintendent of Henshaw’s Blind Asylum, Old Trafford, Manchester
Honorary Secretary to the Board of Examiners of the College of Teachers of the Blind

London
Sampson Low, Marston & Company, Ltd.
1910

To

My Beloved Friend And Counsellor

Henry J. Wilson

(Secretary Of The Gardner's Trust for the Blind)

this little book is

respectfully dedicated

in the earnest hope that it may be the humble instrument in God's hands of accomplishing some little advancement in the great work of the

education of

the blind

W. H. Illingworth
Author

Preface

No up-to-date treatise on the important and interesting subject of "The History of the Education of the Blind " being in existence in this country, and the lack of such a text-book specially designed for the teachers in our blind schools being grievously felt, I have, in response to repeated requests, taken in hand the compilation of such a book from all sources at my command, adding at the same time sundry notes and comments of my own, which the experience of a quarter of a century in blind work has led me to think may be of service to those who desire to approach and carry on their work as teachers of the blind as well equipped with information specially suited to their requirements as circumstances will permit.

It is but due to the juvenile blind in our schools that the men and women to whom their education is entrusted should not only be acquainted with the mechanical means of teaching through the tactile sense, but that they should also be so steeped in blind lore that it becomes second nature to them to think of and see things from the blind person's point of view. Paradoxical as the latter phrase may appear, it is none the less an absolute fact.

It is necessary for a teacher to realise and to thoroughly appreciate the difficulties which his pupil has to encounter, before he can satisfactorily remove them. I say satisfactorily, because, from his earliest days, the blind pupil must be led to have perfect trust and confidence in his teacher, and any hesitancy or vagueness of explanation will make a much deeper impression on the mind of the blind pupil than would be the ease in a child possessed of all its faculties.

To the end, therefore, of providing a means whereby he who runs may read something that will assist him in becoming better acquainted with the history of the education of the blind, I now commit myself, in the hope that my readers will pardon any imperfections which they may find in this little treatise.
The Author

History of the Education of the Blind

The Psychology of Blindness

At first sight it may appear somewhat incongruous that a work on the "History of the Education of the Blind" should commence with a chapter devoted to a subject which is, to use a common phrase, one of the "burning questions of the day "--a subject which was deemed worthy of a place on the programme of the Manchester Conference, 1908, and on which a most scholarly and edifying paper was read by Mr. J. M. Ritchie, of Henshaw's Blind Asylum. [A paper on this subject was read by Mr. S. Neil, of Edinburgh, at the York Conference in 1883.]

But "history repeats itself " no less in the blind world than in other spheres, and the earliest treatise on blind lore to which the writer has the good fortune to have access, viz. "Essay on Blindness," by M. Diderot (Physician to his Most Christian Majesty Louis XV. of France), 1773, bears remarkable testimony to this fact. [Reprinted by Sampson Low, Marston & Co. Ltd., Fetter Lane, Fleet Street, London, E.C., 1895.]

As this essay was written at the very genesis of blind education it is interesting to note, in the first place, how accurately M. Diderot's deductions coincide with the most advanced ideas on the subject to-day, and, in the second place, how utterly the teachings of his philosophy were disregarded for a whole century and more by those who took in hand the education of the blind. A few verbatim extracts from this noteworthy essay will in themselves justify their inclusion here.

Regarding ORDER, Diderot says : "The difficulty which blind persons have in finding things mislaid makes them love regularity and exactness; and I have observed that those about them imbibe the quality, whether from the good example set them by the blind, or from an human concern for them. The blind would indeed be very unhappy without such regard from those about them, nay we ourselves would feel the want of it. Great services are like pieces of gold and silver which we seldom have occasion to make use of; but little complaisances are as current cash, which we are continually receiving or paying away."
"JUDGMENT, or symmetry, which perhaps is no more than a matter of mere compact among us, is certainly such in many respects between a blind man and those who have their sight. A blind man studies by his touch that disposition required between the parts of a whole, to entitle it to be called ‘fine,’ and thus at length attains to a just application of that term. But, in saying that is fine, he does not judge: it is no more than repeating the judgment of those who-see."
VISUAL IDEAS.—“I asked him [a blind patient] what he meant by a looking-glass--of which he often spoke. ‘A machine,’ answered he, ‘which puts relievo things at a distance from themselves, if when properly placed with regard to it.’
"This man knows from the account of others that objects are known by means of the sight, as to him by the touch--at least, it is the only notion he can form of them. He further knows that there is no seeing one's own face, though it may be touched, he must therefore conclude sight to be a kind of touch reaching only to objects different from our face, and at a distance from us. The touch gives him only an idea of relief ; therefore, adds he, “a looking-glass is a machine representing us in relief out of ourselves.”"
EYES.—“’And what do you take eyes to be ?’ said I. ‘They are,’ said the blind man, ‘an organ in which the air has the effect which my stick has on my hand. So true is this, that on my putting my hand between your eyes and an object, my hand is present to you, but the object is absent. It is the same with me, when I am seeking one thing with my stick and meet another.’”
VOICE.--"He has prodigious remembrance of sounds; and the infinite diversity we perceive in faces he perceives in voices, with numberless minute gradations which escape us as not so much concerned to observe them .... The helps which our senses reciprocally afford to each other hinder their improvement.” [This is, of course, only according to the ordinary laws of evolution.]
SIGHT AND TOUCH VALUED.--"One of our company asked the blind man whether he should not be very glad to have eyes. 'Were it not for curiosity,' said he, 'I would full as lieve have long arms. My hands, I think, would inform me better what is doing in the moon than your eyes or your telescopes. Besides, the eyes sooner cease to see than the hands to touch, that to improve the organs I have would be as good as to give me that which is wanting in me.'"

The last sentence sums up the whole aim of blind education. In a conversation with the writer some months ago, Dr. Eichholz, H.M. Inspector for Special Schools, said: "Education of the blind absolutely fails in its object in so far as it fails to develop the remaining faculties to compensate for the want of sight."

Comparing this expression of opinion with the following paragraph from a letter signed "Demodocus," in the “Edinburgh Magazine and Review”, November, 1774—

"The most important view, therefore, which we can entertain in the education of a person deprived of sight is to redress as effectually as possible the natural disadvantages with which he is encumbered, or, in other words, to enlarge as far as possible his sphere of knowledge and activity. This can only be done by the improvement of his intellectual imagination and mechanical powers, and which of these ought to be most assiduously cultivated, the genius of every individual alone can determine "--it is seen that the ideal for blind education to-day is precisely the same as it was a hundred and thirty-five years ago. But, alas! the history of the progress towards that ideal proves how sadly that progress has been retarded through the failure of those interested in the work to realise that touch and sight must be developed by means which, practically in all respects, are dissimilar; for, to again quote Diderot, "we distinguish the presence of things out of us from the imagery of them in our imagination. " So the blind man discerns the sensation from the real presence of an object at his fingers' ends, only by the force or weakness of that very sensation. Should a philosopher who has been blind and deaf from birth ever make a man in imitation of Descartes, I dare affirm that he will place the soul at the fingers' ends, as from thence deriving his principal sensations, and all his lights."

Education of the Blind--Reading

It is impossible to say who was the first person in the world to conceive the idea of the possibility of teaching the blind to read by means of raised characters. Many people are under the impression that this distinction belongs to Valentin Haüy, but that such is not the case is clearly proved by reference to the essay quoted above, where M. Diderot relates a visit to a blind man. He says: "It was about five in the afternoon when we came to the blind man's house, where we found him hearing his son read with raised characters." This was prior to 1773, and we know Valentin Haüy did not begin his experiments till 1784.

It is probable that isolated cases of blind people reading from raised type had occurred during many years, perhaps centuries before this. Valentin Haüy himself refers to such sporadic attempts to teach relief reading.

Valentin Haüy

(Born 1745; died 1822)

The name of this renowned Frenchman should be written up in letters of gold in every institution for the blind in the world, and all pupils, young and old, should be taught to revere his name, seeing he was the first--of whom we have any record--who conceived the idea of systematically teaching the blind to read by means of raised characters.

Haüy was a native of Picardy, and tried his earliest experiments on a blind youth named Le Sueur. He was so far successful that in 1784 he took his pupil to Paris, there to exhibit him as an example of what might be achieved by his methods.

The Academy of Sciences, having examined the youth, were much delighted at the results obtained, and praised the efforts of Haüy; whilst the Philosophical Society of Paris showed their appreciation of his labours in a practical manner by providing him with funds to enable him to extend his benefits to others.

During 1785 Haüy gave public exhibitions of his pupils for the purpose of creating public interest and sympathy. In this year the National Institution for the Young Blind (l’Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles) was founded, and to it belongs the distinction of being the first educational institution for the blind founded in Europe.

Towards the close of the following year Louis XVI. expressed a wish to see Haüy 's pupils, and Haüy took about thirty of them to Versailles, in the hope that the king would be induced to take the school under his protection. In this, however, he was disappointed, and he was left without any such help.

Disastrous days were in store for the young and struggling school. Paris was shortly writhing in the throes of the great Revolution, and, though the revolutionary Government nominally took the school under State protection, the benefit was only a nominal one--the pupils were driven from the school, and poor Haüy, broken by discouragements and in despair of better times, fled his country.

The Emperor Paul of Russia having given him an invitation to visit his capital, Haüy directed his steps thither, and on his way, calling at Berlin, he was instrumental in founding a school for the blind there.

His next seven or eight years he spent in St. Petersburg, and, in spite of much opposition, managed to start a school for the blind in that city. The emperor failed to give assistance, being afraid to offend his nobles, who were opposed to any scheme which had progress for its object.

When he returned to :Paris, in 1817, Haüy found the institution there remodelled, with Dr. Guillié as its head.

Haüy was now poor and cast down by sickness, and, though he could do but little, continued to display great interest in all matters connected with the education of the blind. He died in 1822.

In "An Essay on the Education of the Blind," dedicated to the King of France, 1786, Valentin Haüy states how deeply his whole nature was moved by the miserable condition of isolation from their fellow men under which the blind people of his time suffered. He says:

"It is to be essentially serviceable to this class of suffering mortals that I have invented a general plan which, by principles and utensils proper for their use, might facilitate to some of these what they could not otherwise accomplish without almost insuperable difficulty, and render practicable to others what it appeared impossible for them to execute."

In Chapter III. of his essay, on the subject of reading, he continues :

"Before our time various but ineffectual experiments had been tried. Sometimes by the assistance of characters moving upon a board and raised above its surface*, at other times by the use of letters formed upon paper with the puncture of a pin**, the principles or elementary characters of reading had been rendered obvious to the perception of the blind.

    *[It was, doubtless, this method which was used by the blind man referred to by Diderot, as teaching his son to read.]

    **[This idea was utilised many years later by Alston of Glasgow in the formation of his pin-type and board for writing.]

“Already had the wonders of the art of writing, which before had appeared chimerical, been realised ; already, under their touch, which was now found substitute for vision, had the conception of the blind assumed a body. But these gross and imperfect utensils only presented to the blind the possibility of attaining and enjoying the pleasures and advantages of reading without affording them the proper means of acquiring them. We had no difficulty in exploring them: their principles had existed for a long time, and were daily exhibited to our eyes. We had observed that a printed leaf issuing from the press, presented to the eye, on the contrary side, the letters higher than its surface, but reversed both in their position and in their order.
"We ordered typographical characters to be east of the form in which their impression strikes our eyes, and by applying to these a paper wet, as the printers do, we produced the first exemplar which had till then appeared of letters whose elevation renders them obvious to the touch without the intervention of sight. Such was the origin of a library for the use of the blind.
"After having successively employed characters of different sizes, according, as we found the touch of our pupils more or less delicate and susceptible, it appeared proper to us, at least during the first periods of our progress, to confine ourselves to that type which has been used in printing the greatest part of this work. This character appears to us as a proper medium amongst those which can be felt and distinguished by different individuals who are deprived of sight.’”

It is interesting here to note what it was that directly prompted Haüy to attempt the education of the blind. As already stated, he had for some time been moved by the sad condition of his sightless countrymen. Subjoined is Haüy 's own account of the incident which stirred his sympathy into active measures of a practical nature.

"Many persons have carried the concern which they felt for our Institution even to demand how such an idea could possibly enter our mind .... Anxious to satisfy a curiosity so laudable, we are eager to subjoin here a concise narrative of the rise, progress, and actual state of our establishment.
“A novelty of a kind so singular has attracted for several years the united attention of a number of persons at the entry of one of those places of refreshment situated in the public walks whither respectable citizens go to relax themselves about the decline of the day.
"Eight or ten poor blind persons, with spectacles on their noses, placed along a desk which sustained instruments of music, where they executed a discordant symphony, seemed to give delight to the audience. A very different sentiment possessed our soul, and we conceived, at that very instant, the possibility of realising, to the advantage of those unfortunate people, the means of which they had only an apparent and ridiculous enjoyment. 'The blind,' said we to ourselves, 'do they not know objects by the diversity of their forms? Are they mistaken in the value of a piece of money? Why can they not distinguish C from G in music, or an A from a B in orthography, if their characters are rendered plain?'"

This is the simple story of the beginnings of systematic education of the blind--apparently prompted by an everyday and commonplace incident, but how far-reaching in its beneficent influence who can tell?

Types

It is a somewhat remarkable coincidence that in 1774, almost contemporaneously with the essay by M. Diderot above quoted, and which was written in France, an article should appear in the Edinburgh Magazine and Review, written, so to speak, on the same "text," with a similar end in view, and it is, to say the least of it, strange that for fifty years after Haüy’s début, we hear nothing of any advance or progress in the matter of suitable types for touch reading.

The type used by Haüy was a kind of italic, and in the various institutions for the blind, which quickly followed the founding of that in Paris, a similar type was used.

Sample of Hauy's italic tactile type.

The above is a facsimile of type used by Valentin Haüy.

Not till 1831 is any change found: then James Gall of Edinburgh introduced his angular roman type. He printed several introductory books, and in 1834 published the Gospel of St. John. About this time the Royal Scottish Society of Arts offered a prize medal for the best and most suitable raised type for printing books for the blind, and Gall was an unsuccessful competitor, the prize being awarded to Dr. Edmund Fry, whose alphabet consisted of the ordinary capital letters, denuded of their small strokes.

In a work “The Education of the Blind," [reprinted by Sampson Low, Marston & Co., Ltd., 1894] published in 1837 by himself, Gall says (Preface):

"The blind are now able to read nearly as fluently as those who see. Books are now printed for their use. They are also able to write letters to each other by post, and to read what is thus written."

On page 9 he continues:

"Although Mr. Gall in the present century (1837) has revived the printing for the blind, he was not the first who thought of it. It was attempted in Paris during the last century, and failed, not from any impossibility in the thing itself, but on account of the alphabet which was employed for the purpose. Mr. Gall, perceiving that angles were more easily felt than rounds, and that the outside of the letter was more easily felt than the inside, modified the alphabet into its simplest form, throwing the characteristics of each letter to the outside, and using angles instead of rounds. After a long-continued laborious and expensive series of experiments, by means of blind persons, he has produced the present alphabet, which may now be considered the most simple, the most tangible, and therefore the most perfect alphabet which can be constructed for the blind." [See the specimens of alphabets below.]

Mr. Gall is so carried away with his own enthusiasm that he is not content to say his is the best alphabet as yet constructed for the blind, but the most perfect that can be. Further on in the little work just quoted, he states: "The blind are able to skim over the letters with great rapidity in reading .... So great is the facility with which the blind are able to feel the letters, that already they can read books printed with the common English size of type. This is the same as is used in pulpit Bibles and in papers printed for the Courts of Law! [The italics and exclamations are ours.—Ed.] And, although this surpasses all that was formerly hoped for, even this is not to be considered the smallest size which the blind will be able to read .... And so very plain do the letters appear to them, that they can read with a stout glove upon the hand, or a piece of linen laid upon the book."

Who will deny the existence of a sixth sense after this?

Now, turning to the evidence of a contemporary and eye-witness of these marvellous feats of the blind in regard to Mr. Gall's type, it is seen what he has to say regarding them. The quotations are from "Observations on the Employment and Education of the Blind," by Thomas Anderson (1837), Manager of the Asylum for the Blind, Edinburgh.

"Mr. Gall (a printer), of Edinburgh, was the first in this country who directed the attention of the public to the subject [viz. Printing for the Blind]. In 1831 he published some elementary works in what may perhaps be called the angular roman character--the roman, with all the circles turned into angles. When these books came out, he requested that some of the boys belonging to the Asylum in Edinburgh might be allowed to take lessons from him. This the directors with pleasure immediately granted: and, I think, three if not four of our sharpest youngsters were under his care twice or three times a week. No restriction as to time was laid upon him he--had them quite at his own disposal--and they continued with him for some months. But, even with all Mr. Gall's own attention--and, I am sure when, I say so, every security is given that all that perseverance, kindness, and ardour in a favourite pursuit could do was done in their case--yet the result was nothing more than their being able to make out letter by letter, and a few short words, some of them hardly that. As to anything like 'reading' in the common acceptation of the word, it was out of the question, Mr. Gall himself being judge. I am sure that gentleman will bear me out in saying that a fairer specimen of what the working blind can do could not have been found. They were boys of excellent parts, varying from fourteen to twenty years of age, and had been shorter and longer in the Institution, so that even a variety of finger delicacy might have been reasonably expected amongst them. They were tried under his own eye--without limitation as to time--and I will leave it to Mr. Gall to say to what the result amounted .... When the Gospel by St. John appeared in 1834, many benevolent individuals who had subscribed for it offered their copies to the directors for use in the schoolroom. This was gratefully accepted, and, to leave nothing undone, they directed a second trial to be made under the care of Mr. Robert Mylne, the teacher at the Asylum, himself blind. Six boys were daily engaged on it for as many months, and yet, with all the attention possible, the result was not one whit better than the first one. Both teacher and taught were tired out of measure. They often averred they could get the Gospel by heart in half the time, and I don't doubt it. Mylne himself was very desirous of benefiting by this mode of instruction, and took a copy of the work home with him, but although able, like the others, to do a little, yet it was nothing when compared with reading ....
"Thus, then, there were only five or six ever engaged on this study at the institution alluded to, while the number of inmates amounted to one hundred and ten or thereby. Yet in a report published by the Society of Arts at Edinburgh is it stated: 'Mr. Gall has obtained ample testimonials from the Directors of the Edinburgh, Glasgow, and London Asylums, as to the efficiency of his alphabet, and his success in teaching the blind TO READ by means of it in these institutions." Confining myself, of course, to the first-mentioned, I cannot but express my surprise that any such statement could have been made, when not more than six were at any time engaged in the pursuit, and the result being as I have stated it.
"... Another trial, such as I have just detailed, took place at the London School. It was commenced by Mr. Gall himself as detailed in his 'Literature for the Blind,' and carried on so far, but was soon after relinquished by the directors. As the reasons have not appeared before the public, I can only state the fact.
"Mr. Gall's publications were also adopted at the Asylum at Glasgow, and, by the reports of the examinations, promised to realise all the hopes that had been formed of them, when, about six or eight months ago, they were relinquished for a character which was recommended some years ago by the late Dr. Fry of London, to the Society of Arts at Edinburgh. This, Mr. Alston, the treasurer of the Asylum adopted, and set up a press in the establishment, and has printed several works in the character alluded to, viz. roman capitals (now commonly known as Alston's type).
"The character, however, does not seem to me to have as much to do with the matter as has been represented. Those enjoying sight are too apt to think that what appears so nice to the eye must therefore be the best for the blind. This by no means follows : and, so far as experiment goes, Mr. Gull's triangular (?) roman is as good as .Dr. Fry's capitals ....
"Under the idea that so much depends on the character, we have no less than five* different characters out already. ... There is Gall's, the Bostonian (roman large and small), Philadelphian (similar), Lucas's (stenographic), and Fry's."

    *[As a matter of fact there were seven, for Moon’s and Frere’s types were then in existence, though evidently unknown to Anderson.]

Thus began the battle of the types, which has ever since been waged with greater or less fury, and which, so far as Braille is concerned at any rate, is still raging. It is fairly proved, however, that the earliest attempts to teach reading by touch, both in England and France, were more or less failures, owing, doubtless, to the reason asserted so wisely and prophetically by Anderson in the sentence quoted above in small capitals. As opposed to this opinion, the reader may refer to Gull's publication, as showing how absolutely he differed from this view.

"Any attempt to introduce a literature for the blind would certainly be ruined by founding it on an arbitrary alphabet. In the first place, we must keep in view the perpetual sentence of banishment from the understandings and sympathies of the public generally, which, practically speaking, would be pronounced against it from its very birth. No man can ever be expected to feel so much interest in a thing which he must learn before he can understand, as in that which is plain to his eyes and to his understanding ....
"No one but professed teachers of the blind would, in all probability, ever attempt to learn it. This would be a most serious disadvantage to a literature which is intended, not merely for blind asylums, but for every parlour and cottage where there is a person blind .... An arbitrary character wilI be exceedingly repulsive, more especially at the commencement ....
"There is an awful insecurity attending any books which might be printed in an arbitrary character, and as great an insecurity attending the learning to read them .... The adoption of an arbitrary character would ruin all prospects of the system of epistolary correspondence between the blind and their friends, etc., etc."

How truly is the wisdom of to-day the foolishness of to-morrow! Which of these awful calamities has followed the adoption of the arbitrary character introduced by Louis Braille ?

Frere and Moon both adopted the return line principle--that is, reading one line from left to right, and the next from right to left. Frere reversed his characters in the return line, but not so Moon.

The Boston character is still used in some American schools, as is also the Philadelphian, which is almost identical with Alston's. This latter, until quite recently, was used at the Worcester College for Blind Sons of Gentlemen.

Lucas's type, introduced in 1838, was adopted by the London Society for Teaching the Blind to Read, at their establishment at Swiss Cottage, London, and a press set up for the production of literature in that type. Only of late years has this been discontinued.

It is unnecessary in this brief work to remark further upon any of the above types except Moon's, which, on account of its simplicity, easy acquirement, and boldness of relief, is so suitable for the blind whose fingers are hardened by toil, or for those elderly people who only require books as a means of passing the time, which would otherwise hang heavily on their hands. There will probably always be a considerable demand for books in this pre-eminently useful line type, and all teachers of the blind are earnestly recommended to make themselves familiar with it. The printing and publishing of "Moon" books is personally superintended by Miss Adelaide Moon, daughter of the late Dr. Moon, the honoured inventor of the type; and any inquiries addressed to her at 104, Queen's Road, Brighton, will be kindly and promptly replied to. Dr. Moon's type has already been adapted to some four hundred foreign languages and dialects, and of late years the publishing of the Scriptures in these has been taken up. by the British and Foreign Bible Society. (See also "Moon's Typewriter.")

Specimens of alphabets: Gall, Alston, Lucas, Moon.

Specimens of alphabets.

“Braille”

This is the system of embossed type which, in one form or another, is used practically universally for purposes of education; it was invented or adapted by Louis Braille, first a pupil, then a teacher at the Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, Paris. Adapted, because his invention was only an improvement--a very great one, all will admit--on a previously existing point alphabet introduced by an artillery officer, M. Barbier. Barbier's was in principle the same as Braille's, but his full number of points was twelve instead of six, so that his letters were unwieldy, and the space covered by them inconveniently large. Braille at first soldered strips of metal across Barbier's writing-frame, so as to cover up one half of the cell for each letter, and by this means acquired the power of writing his own more compact alphabet. This was in 1829, and although, as we have said, "Braille " type is now the veritable lux in tenebris of the blind, it was for many years rigorously opposed as an arbitrary and impossible type. Both pupils and Professors in the Paris school were not slow to see the immense superiority of it over the roman letter, but the school authorities would not change their system; though Braille was allowed to teach it out of school hours and unofficially. Indeed, it was not till 1854, two years after the death of its author, that the "Braille" system was officially adopted at the Paris school.

In our own country it fared no better, for, although introduced into England about 1868, it was not until fully twenty years later that it was anything like generally accepted in blind institutions, and by the reading blind of the country. In Scotland especially it was bitterly opposed, more particularly by the home-teaching societies, and even at the Edinburgh Institution it was only after years of persuasive entreaty that the then manager, Mr. William Martin--so well known as the introducer of kindergarten for the blind--succeeded in getting the teachers at West Craigmillar to give "Braille" a trial.

It has been stated on good authority that Louis Braille, who was above all, and first of all, a musician, adapted Barbier's shortened character to form a musical alphabet, and that the well-known first, second, third, and fourth lines of Braille signs--at least so far as the last seven in each line were concerned--had their origin in this way. This view would appear most reasonable, for it is much more likely that the four lines had their origin in the requirements of the efficient representation of quaver, crotchet, minim, and semibreve, than that a purely arbitrary arrangement of dots for an alphabet and some contractions should so excellently and accidentally suit the necessities of the musical notes,

Another argument in favour of this view is the fact--which has of late been frequently remarked upon--that a genius such as Braille should have formed an alphabet without any relation between the number of dots used in the letter and the frequency of that letter's recurrence in ordinary literature. No; Louis Braille considered the exigencies of ordinary literature secondary to those of music, and his genius stands justified to-day. There are many variations of the Braille alphabet and contractions signs, but only one musical alphabet, and that practically as he made it, still unchanged in all parts of the world where Braille of every kind is used.

Let any one who doubts the above theory write out the last seven characters of line 1--that is, d to j--and notice what a distinct relationship there is between the various characters, whether looked at vertically, horizontally, or downside up, always the same seven, the perfect number; and we think he will be convinced that the facts are as stated.

Braille Literature

The Education and Employment of the Blind

    [Dr. Armitage’s book on “The Education and Employment of the Blind," p. 37 et seq.]

"Those who only know the state of the education of the blind as it at present exists can scarcely conceive the utter chaos in which this whole subject was involved before the formation of the British and Foreign Blind Association in 1868. The usual plan up to that time was for some one who was in comparative ignorance of what had been done by others to start a new system, which was taken up by philanthropists, who had still less knowledge of the subject. Subscriptions were raised, and the Babel of systems was increased by a fresh one. In this way it had come to pass that the Bible, or the greater part of it, had at that time already been printed in English in five different systems, while there was scarcely any other standard work published except in the type introduced by Dr. Howe, of Boston, and this was so small that probably not one blind adult in fifty could learn to read it with any degree of comfort. The wasteful extravagance of thus printing the same book in so many systems was not the only inconvenience arising from this want of harmony. Another evil was that the blind had to learn to read by the character which happened to be in favour at the institution where they received their education, and, on leaving, they found that, if they were to obtain the benefit of the few books that had been embossed, they had to learn two or three fresh systems, and perhaps discard altogether the one which it had taken them years to acquire. The two main causes of this lamentable state of things seemed to be, as above stated, that there was an utter want of harmony of action, and that inventors of systems and managers of institutions generally had their eyesight, and, misled by this sense, they could not understand or enter into the real wants of the blind. It is a curious and instructive fact that the two systems which are now in most favour with the blind themselves, and which have most vitality in them, are due to two blind men, M. Braille and Dr. Moon.
“Previous to 1868 it had from time to time been attempted to remedy the state of confusion then existing by holding conferences, the various institutions being represented by their managers or secretaries. Each member was in general strongly prejudiced in favour of the system which happened to have come under his own notice; failure was consequently inevitable. Among the more intelligent of the blind the opinion had long been gaining ground that, for any good result to be obtained, the question must not be settled for the blind, but by the blind themselves.* This idea strongly impressed itself on the minds of two or three blind gentlemen, and the result was the formation of the British and Foreign Blind Association, which, though numbering among its members many blessed with sight, has remained true to the axiom that the relative merits of the various methods of education through the sense of touch should be decided by those, and those only, who have to rely upon this sense. The members of the Executive Council are therefore blind, or so nearly so as to be obliged to rely on the sense of touch, and not on that of sight, for the purpose of reading. Most members were also able to read at least three systems of raised letters by touch, and were not pecuniarily interested in any. Some were able to read by every known system, except when, from the extreme smallness of the type, there existed a physical impossibility. They took care themselves to use extensively the methods which seemed to promise well, and they carefully noted the views and wishes of all the intelligent blind within their reach.

    *[See p. 61 (Hora Jucunda Union)]

"Several members had very extensive experience in teaching among the ignorant and aged, as well as among the more intelligent and young. They approached their work with various views, according to their greater or less previous acquaintance with the subject, but with the determination to spare no pains in arriving at the truth. In order to make use of much valuable information thus attainable, the Council, at an early period of its labours, requested the attendance of all the intelligent blind within their reach. They took much pains to ascertain exactly their views, and the reasons for the opinions they held. This evidence was carefully noted down at the time and read over to the blind person under examination. At the commencement of each examination the witness was asked by what systems he could read, and books in these systems were then given to him to test his ability. He was only allowed to give evidence upon those systems with which he could thus prove himself to have a practical acquaintance. The information thus obtained was of great value, as it represented a sort of public opinion among those of the blind who had paid attention to this subject.
" Although since 1868 great changes have occurred, and the views put forward are now pretty generally accepted by the blind and their friends, it may be historically interesting to reprint the conclusions then arrived at, as it was only by the persistent advocacy of its views that the Association has at length secured their general adoption.

Roman Letter

"Roman Letter.--To take the various systems in the order in which they have been enumerated, the CounciI naturally first turned their attention to the roman letter, as being that by which all the members had been educated ; here the wide difference between the points of view of the blind and seeing was at once manifest. In spite of the strongest à priori reasons to the contrary, the unanimous decision was come to, that the roman character in all its existing forms is so complicated that it requires long education and great acuteness of touch to read it with ease, and that its universal adoption would be tantamount to the total exclusion of the great majority of the blind from the privilege of reading. The Council have never yet met with any intelligent blind person, moderately conversant with the subject, who was not of the-same opinion. The constancy with which the roman letter has been advocated by the seeing patrons and managers of institutions shows how opposite is the conclusion arrived at by them, and the incessant modifications of it which have been tried prove how difficult is the problem of rendering the roman character legible by touch. The experience of the New World is the same as that of the Old. The small angularised roman letter of Dr. Howe, of Boston, which is used in most of the United States' institutions is probably as good a form as any, and, if printed in a larger size, would not be difficult to feel; in its present size, however, it is far too small, and has signally failed in America.
"Mr. wait, the Director of the New York Institution, examined 664 pupils, of seven different institutions, as to their reading. All these pupils used the Boston type. He found that out of this number one-third were good readers, one-third read slowly by spelling out the words, and one- third failed entirely.
"In the Missouri Institution, where the Braille system was used, two-thirds learned to read fluently, one-third by spelling, while none failed; and it must be borne in mind that those who learn to read by this system also acquire an admirable method of writing.
"In the Paris School the blind have had their own way, and the roman type is now only regarded as a literary curiosity, not suited to the every-day wants of the blind. This is, no doubt, mainly due to the fact that all the professors in this school are blind. It has often been urged that the blind ought to employ the same character as the seeing, in order to receive assistance when reading.* This argument might be of some weight if no simpler character existed; but where the choice lies between a character to read which the blind man requires assistance, and one which is so simple that he can read it by himself, there ought to be no doubt as to the choice. Another common, but equally fallacious, argument is that by adopting a different character from that used by the seeing there is danger of the isolation of the blind being increased; this is not feared by those whom it is intended to benefit. A man is isolated by everything which renders the acquisition of knowledge difficult and tedious, and his isolation is diminished by everything which facilitates his power of self-education. The best type for him is evidently that which he can read most fluently and most correctly; therefore, in the great majority of cases, it will not be the roman character.
*[See p. 13, par. 5 (“Gall”).]
"Another reason which operates strongly against the adoption of any so-called arbitrary character in our blind institutions is the trouble that it is likely to give to the seeing managers and teachers; for the adoption of such a character involves the necessity of the teacher taking the trouble to learn it, and in the case of the Braille character there is this further difficulty, that reading it is fatiguing to the eye. This objection to arbitrary characters is for obvious reasons scarcely ever stated, and is probably not fully recognised by the managers and teachers themselves. It, nevertheless, consciously or unconsciously to themselves, influences their views very materially. Of course every one will assent to the abstract proposition that in institutions for the blind seeing teachers and officials only exist for the benefit of the blind pupils, and that such institutions are bound to adopt that method of education which is proved to be the best for the blind, whether most convenient to the seeing teachers or not. But, though the truth of such a proposition is beyond all dispute, we are all apt to dislike whatever gives us trouble, though we may at the same time be quite unconscious that the main cause of our dislike is the fear of personal inconvenience.

Moon

"Moon.--Moon's system has qualities which make it very generally useful. It is fully spelt, and consequently can be used for primary education ; and at the same time, in their present size, the letters can be felt by the dull, the aged, and by those whose touch has been impaired by rough work, while the approach of many of his characters to the shape of the corresponding roman letters makes the first step more easy. It is much to be regretted, however, that along with these obvious merits there are also some serious defects. Many letters are perfectly arbitrary, and though in some cases this could not have been avoided, yet in others a closer adherence to the roman letter would have been possible. The non-reversal of the letters in the return line is a serious defect, and the absence of a sign to indicate a divided word at the end of a line is inconvenient.

Shorthand systems

“Shorthand systems.--The advantages of shorthand to the blind are very great. For rapid and pleasant reading the finger ought, as nearly as possible, to imitate the eye, by taking in a whole word at a glance; but this cannot be done when every letter is printed ; as, from the comparative coarseness of the sense of touch, the letters must be on a large scale, and of these the finger can only perceive one at a time. Some sort of shorthand seems to be the only solution of this difficulty; but the two forms in use in 1869, when this examination took place, are unsuitable for educational purposes, as Lucas's is apt to produce bad spelling, and Frere's, being phonetic, disregards orthography altogether. However desirable it may seem to many to adopt phonetic spelling universally, the blind, for many reasons, must not lead the way. All blind children should therefore learn spelling in the ordinary way; if afterwards it should seem desirable, they may in addition be taught shorthand. For the use of adults neither of the existing systems is quite satisfactory. Lucas's characters are not sufficiently distinct, the dotted lines and dotted half-circles being too similar to the same signs without dots. His use of the double letters for numbers is objectionable, and he has made a great mistake in not adopting the return line, which adds much to the ease and comfort of reading. Frere's characters, on the other hand, are the nearest and most tangible of all that have ever been invented for the use of the blind. His return line is perfect, but his total want of punctuation is a serious objection, and the rules are too complicated to be understood without oral teaching, and, as a matter of experience, they are seldom properly learned. The consequence is that most readers by this system do too much by guess-work--though to an educated person, well acquainted with the book he is reading, and only wanting a slight guide (as in the case of the Bible), there is probably no system by which, when it has been acquired, reading can be accomplished with equal comfort and rapidity.
"It would be much to the interest of the blind that their shorthand system should spring out of, and be closely connected with, the full spelling method; so that it would be easy to pass from one to the other without having to learn a new character.*

Point system

Point system.—The great advantage of a point system is the extreme facility with which it is written, while it is at the same time easily read; and a special recommendation of the Braille method is, that out of the ordinary Braille alphabet there naturally springs the best form of musical notation in use among the blind.
"By this means a saving of 25 per cent in space is effected. There is a corresponding gain in the rapidity of reading, while correct spelling is not interfered with. Another great improvement has been the utilising both sides of the sheet, both in printing and writing, the lines on one side corresponding with the intervals on the other. This effects a further saving of 20 per cent in space, and greatly adds to legibility. This method has been followed for many years by the Association in all their publications, whether printed or written. When first introduced it was asserted by many that interlined printing would not be durable; the experience of many years has, however, shown that when proper paper is used interlined printing lasts well, even in books used as class-books in schools, which is the severest of all tests.*

    *[See p. 40, par. 3 (“Interpoint”.)]

"It is pleasant to note that the state of utter confusion which existed, in 1869 has now to a great extent passed away. The roman letter is all but abandoned in the United Kingdom for the purpose of reading, and is little taught, except to give the blind an idea of the appearance of the letters used by the seeing. Frere's and Lucas's systems are almost things of the past, while most of the blind and their instructors are fast becoming unanimous in the opinion that, for purposes of education, and for the intelligent blind of all ages, the Braille system is to be preferred, while Moon's system is the best for those whose sense of touch is much injured by hard manual work, or for those adults who, from want of previous education, or from any other cause, are satisfied if they can read, and do not feel the want of writing. In 1868, when the Association was founded, there was not a single institution for the blind in the United Kingdom in which the Braille system was used, and the number of individuals who knew it probably did not exceed twenty. It is certainly extraordinary that such complete ignorance should have existed of a system which might have been seen in full operation by going over to Paris.
"At-present there is notan institution in the United Kingdom where the Braille system is not more or less used. In the best schools it is employed almost exclusively, and the extent to which it is used forms a pretty good rough test of the quality of teaching in a school. Some idea may be formed of the spread of the Braille system since the formation of the Association by the fact that since that time it has sold about 20,000 styles for writing. The greater part of these have been used in the United Kingdom, though about 1,000 have been sent to France and Germany. Germany has at last realised the importance of Braille as an educational system. In 1873 the first Congress of the Instructors of the Blind was held at Vienna. I there exhibited specimens of Braille writing, printing, and maps, and strongly urged the claims of Braille as a universal educational system for the blind. The subject was referred to a Committee, and at the next Congress, held in 1876 in Dresden, it was decided to adopt a modified Braille, in which, though the Braille frame was retained, the letters were altered in such a way that those letters which occurred most frequently in the German language were represented by the fewest points. The most experienced of the German teachers strongly objected to this decision, and it was reversed at the Congress held in Berlin in 1879, which recommended the old Braille system for universal adoption. This was confirmed at the Congress held in Frankfort in 1882. At the International Congress held in :Paris in 1878 the same conclusion was almost unanimously come to. There is now probably no institution in the civilised world where Braille is not used; except in some of those in North America ; in all, of these, however, the great value of writing is recognised by using some form of point system. Though the blind have much reason to be satisfied with this progress, much still remains to be done. In China and Japan and in other parts of the world there is an immense amount of work to be done. I believe that not only would it be of the greatest possible advantage to the blind of these countries to receive a good elementary education, but that the blind, when taught to read, and when instructed in the Christian religion; would make most valuable native missionaries and colporteurs.”

Mr. Murray, one of the Scottish Bible Society's missionaries at Peking, has tried the experiment on a small scale; it has proved so far most satisfactory. The idea of a blind man being able to read and write is so new in these countries that the people crowd around him, and he can obtain a hearing and sell the Scriptures, where no seeing man would have been listened to. Mr. Murray has commenced to print the New Testament in Chinese by means of frames and plates supplied to him by the Association. The Chinese writing for the seeing being a sort of shorthand, there is no objection to using it for the blind; and by this means a great amount of space is saved, amounting probably to over 100 per cent.

Many of the dialects of India, China, and other Eastern countries have now been reduced to "Braille," and the, British and Foreign Bible Society have a large staff engaged solely on the work of producing the Scriptures in "Braille" in these languages.

Braille shorthand*

    *[The " Key to Braille Shorthand " may be obtained from the Royal Blind Asylum and School, West Craigmillar, Edinburgh.]

In 1895 the Editor of Hera Jucunda offered a prize of £5 for the best method of Braille shorthand writing for the blind. Some excellent competitive schemes were sent in, and, after these had been submitted to Dr. Campbell, of Norwood, the late Mr. Buckle, of York, and other Braille experts, the prize was awarded to a collaborated effort which emanated from the Birmingham Institution for the Blind. This system of shorthand is now taught in all the principal schools, and by means of a neat and ingenious little machine invented by Mr. Henry Stainsby (late secretary and general superintendent of the above institution, and now general secretary of the British and Foreign Blind Association) and known as the Stainsby-Wayne* shorthand machine, a blind typist can, with ease, take down notes at the rate of 110 to 120 words per minute, and is thus provided with a most valuable adjunct to the ordinary typewriting machine, so useful in fact that many blind girls have, so equipped, been enabled to secure and retain excellent appointments as correspondence clerks in business offices.

    *[Mr. Alfred Wayne, of Birmingham, was the maker of the machine, under Mr. Stainsby's direction. The cost of the machine is about £6.]

The Edison-Bell Phonograph

Previous to the invention of Braille shorthand, the Edison-Bell Phonograph had been utilised for the purpose of dictating letters to blind typists, who had been trained to do correspondence for the office of the institutions where they were located. The honour of being the first to utilise the phonograph in this way for the blind belongs to West Craigmillar Institution, Edinburgh, and practically all the correspondence of the establishment was so dictated for many years. But the advent of Braille Shorthand and the very significant fact that business men in search of correspondence clerks would not be likely to supply them with phonographs at £30 apiece, as they then were, caused the discontinuance of this machine, except in one or two isolated cases.

Braille shorthand may be written on the ordinary Braille frame, but the speed attainable does not, of course, nearly approach that of the Stainsby-Wayne machine. The paper for the latter is in the form of a long narrow strip, about one inch wide, and rolled into the form of a bobbin. This is fixed on a spool carried by the machine, and passes automatically over six little punches actuated by six separate keys as these are pressed in the required combinations. The clots are made upwards, and are thus readily felt by the operator without turning the paper over. The embossed portion passes into a receiving basket and, when finished, is either rewound on to the reel and read as required, or used straight from the basket in the best way the ingenuity of the operator may devise.

Writing

Valentin Haüy and his contemporaries, as well as Gall and his contemporaries, all claimed to teach the blind to write, but their methods were slow, laborious, and very unsatisfactory, the system, if such it can be called, being to form their respective characters by means of a stylo in their reversed form on a sheet of paper placed upon felt, rubber, or some such yielding substance, thereby raising them on the other side, the writing, of course, being done from right to left.

The first idea of a mechanical apparatus for writing by the blind appears to have been that of Alston, who introduced a device which consisted of square pegs about 1¼ inch long and 3/8 inch square, on one end surface of which he arranged short sharp pins in the form of the: roman letter, one letter on each peg, the peg being notched on one side to denote the proper position of the letter in using. By means of an ingenious frame and ruler--the frame bedded with flannel or baize upon which the paper was laid--these points were then pressed firmly upon the. paper, and piercing it, threw up in clear relief the desired letter on the obverse side, so that it could be read with ease. This system had the advantage that letters written by means of it could be read either by blind or sighted, and it was often used for addressing wrappers or envelopes. It remained in vogue for many years, and is used even yet.

During the last fifty years a great variety of inventions has been brought out for enabling the blind to write ordinary characters--generally a form of italics--in pencil, for communication with their sighted friends. The most satisfactory, as well as the nearest and least cumbersome of these, was the Guldberg frame, which emanated from Copenhagen, and was of a size convenient for carrying in the pocket. Really beautiful work could be produced by means of this little apparatus by a-careful writer, and quite a respectable amount of speed could be achieved with practice.

This method is a vast improvement upon Gall's little strip of brass with square openings in which the roman characters were formed by the writer. Other mechanical writing-frames of a more or less similar nature are Moon's, Wedgwood's Noctograph, Thursfield's, Pooley's, and Levitte's.

Valentin Haüy used glutinous ink, with which he wrote a very bold hand upon paper; over this writing, sand was dusted, which adhered to the letters and formed a rough sort of relief writing. He admits himself, however, that this was more or less a failure.

Dr. Moon brought out paper crossed with raised lines, between which it is easy, for those who have learnt previous to losing their sight, to write; whilst the British and Foreign Blind Association supply a corrugated piece of cardboard on which the paper is laid; the grooves are felt through the paper, and are quite a sufficient guide.

The latest idea on these lines, however, is that adopted by the writer. It is by far the simplest, and at least as good as any. Thin twine is stretched tightly across the face of an ordinary Braille frame, in lines about half an inch apart, by means of small holes drilled through the board about one inch from each side. A coating of thin glue is then brushed over them, and, when dry, the apparatus is ready for use, the writing-paper being fixed by the clip at the top provided for holding the Braille paper.

The twine is distinctly felt through the paper as raised lines, quite a sufficient guide for any one to write who has learnt to do so before becoming blind. This treatment does not in any way detract from the use of the board for Braille work, as the twine in no way interferes with the movements of the brass guide.

Foucaud

Louis Braille and M. Foucaud together invented a machine for writing, which was until recently used for that purpose. It consisted of a number of converging wires, so arranged that, when pressed down in varying order, the points struck on a sheet of paper under which was a carbonised sheet. Letters consisting of dotted lines were thus produced.

The writing was very slow and difficult to learn.

Hughes's Typograph

This was invented many years ago by Mr. Hughes, of Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester. It produced very good printing, and was easy to learn, but it was very expensive, and cannot now be procured.

Typewriters

The modern typewriter has, however, settled the question as to what is the best means for a blind person corresponding with his seeing friends, or producing sighted writing for other purposes. Typewriting is now systematically taught as part of the ordinary curriculum in all the best schools for the blind in the world.

Edinburgh was probably the first to introduce it, and was certainly the first institution which produced a blind typist who was successful in obtaining an appointment as correspondence clerk in a business office.

Birmingham followed quickly, and soon took the lead, forming a special class for training clerks for commercial work, and developing every possible resource in this direction, including instruction in telephoning, shorthand, and bookkeeping ; so that the school at Edgbaston now stands at the very head in all matters connected with typewriting for and by the blind. The favourite machine there is the Remington.

At the Royal Normal College, Upper Norwood, typewriters are numbered by the score, Dr. Campbell having very advanced, but sound, views on the value of typewriting as an educational medium, apart altogether from its commercial aspect. The machine most in vogue at Norwood is the Hammond, its automatic stroke rendering it particularly suitable for use by the blind.

At Henshaw's Blind Asylum there are in use the Hammond, Yöst, Smith Premier, Underwood, and Remington.. In the opinion of experts any really good standard machine may be readily understood and worked by the blind, but it is advisable to choose those which have a simply adjustable ribbon attachment, if they be ribbon machines.

At first embossed letters affixed to the keys were used, but these were soon discarded in favour of the absolute touch principle, now almost universally adopted. Dr. Campbell still, however, adheres to the method of fitting the keys at certain intervals with felt pads, as a guide to position.

It may be interesting to add that at Birmingham for several years a typewriting office has been carried on in the city, in connection with the Institution, and here a number of blind typists earn a good living by doing work for the public. There are now quite a number of low-priced typewriters on the market, quite suitable for private use by the blind; of these the Moya, made by the Moya Typewriter Co., Leicester, is probably the best; price about £4.

Braille Writing

It is quite unnecessary to describe here the ordinary Braille frame, with its brass guide containing two lines of cells; but it must be remembered that this frame is the product of evolution. The original method of writing Braille--as other embossed script--was to impress it by means of a stylo on paper placed upon baize, rubber, soft leather, or other yielding substance, the guide consisting of a strip of brass containing one or two lines of oblong holes of the required size, similar to the upper half of the ordinary Braille brass guide.

Later, a frame was brought out in Paris consisting of a slab of zinc, corrugated on one side, with grooves run from side to side and equally distant, from top to bottom. In this also the guide was similar to that used on the felt or rubber bedded frames. These, however, will only allow of writing on one side of the paper, but are still used in France, and in some English schools.

A great variety of pocket frames has also been produced, and they have proved very useful to those blind persons who require to take notes, etc.

Mr. Menzel, of the Hamburg Blind Institute, has lately invented an excellent Braille frame made entirely in zinc, by means of which Braille may be written with perfect ease and accuracy in a book. It is made in several sizes, the smaller of which are quite convenient for the pocket.

The same gentleman has invented quite a number of useful helps to blind education, including mathematical instruments, geometrical designs; etc. He will be glad to send his catalogue of such on receipt of request for same. His address is Mr. Menzel, Blinden Asyl, Hamburg, Alexanderstrasse 32.

Mr. Alfred Wayne, of Birmingham, has also produced a variety of pocket and other Braille frames, mostly in brass and nickel, and quite excellent for their purpose.

Braille Writing Machines

Braille typewriters, as they are often termed, followed as a natural course in the wake of typewriting machines for the sighted. The variety of these is not quite so great in the former as in the latter, but it is large enough to preclude the possibility of mentioning them all here. One of the earliest, and still one of the best, is the Hall machine* invented by Mr. Hall, formerly a teacher in the Philadelphia School, and manufactured and supplied by Messrs. Harrison & Seifried, Chicago. It is a very strongly built machine, measuring only twelve inches by eight, and about four high. The dots are made by depressing the proper combinations of six keys, which are arranged in two groups of three, somewhat resembling the black keys of a pianoforte.

    *[May be obtained from the British and Foreign Blind Association, price about £3 3s.]

The dots are made upwards, and may be read by the finger immediately the impressiorn is made. Either close line or interlined Braille may be written on this machine, the cost of which is $13.

Of German machines, probably the Kleidograph is the best known.

Mr. Wayne has brought out several Braille writing-machines, apart from the shorthand machine: one of which resembles an ordinary Braille frame, the writing being done by a set of punches worked by six keys affixed to a travelling bogie, which moves across the paper one notch or letter space at a time, as the keys are depressed. The cost of this excellent and efficient instrument is about a guinea.

Dr. Moon

William Moon, son of James and Mary Funnel Moon, was born at Hrsemonden, in Kent, on December 18, 1818. His father died whilst William was still in his infancy; but his mother, from whom he inherited an indomitable spirit and perseverance, lived to the advanced age of ninety.

His whole career is a proof that "impossible " is a word which should be used with much discretion.

When only four years old he lost the sight of one eye through scarlet fever. The sight of the remaining eye was also seriously affected, so that at school he could only get his lessons by the aid of his fellow pupils. At the age of twenty-one, in spite of many surgical operations, he became totally blind.

Losing no time in vain regrets, he gave his attention to mastering the various systems of reading for the blind, including Frere's; this done; he began to seek for and teach other blind persons at their homes, and later he formed a class, which developed into the Asylum for the Blind, Eastern Road, Brighton.

Whilst engaged in this work, he found that many of his pupils were quite unequal to the task of committing to memory the countless contractions necessary, or of deciphering the embossed roman letters. Reflecting upon this, the desire arose in his mind to devise some easier method, and after earnest consideration and ingenious contriving he constructed a new system, which has now stood the test of sixty years and is known throughout the world as "Moon's system for teaching the Blind to read." *

    *[In his labour of love for the blind, he travelled all over the United Kingdom, founding home-teaching societies, and in 1882 visited the United States of America on a similar errand: and there his work is continued by his son, Dr. R. C. Moon, of the Pennsylvania Home Teaching Society.]

He spent his whole life in home-mission work, in fact he may be called the father of home-teaching societies in England, his "dear blind," as he called them, being his first and chief care. He died "in harness" on October 10, 1894, having delivered his usual Sunday address to the blind, in the Town Hall of Brighton, three days before.

In recognition of his life work for the blind, the honorary degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Philadelphia University, in May, 1871. He was a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and of the Society of Arts. He was also a member of the Société Internationale pour l’Amélioration de sort les Aveugles, Paris.

Moon Typewriter

At the recent Manchester Conference an ingenious machine, for which a great future is predicted, was exhibited by Miss Moon. By its aid embossed writing in Moon characters is rendered easy and rapid. It is claimed that this machine will be particularly useful for the production, of certain books of which only a very limited supply is required.

New York System Of Point Type

This system may, perhaps, be best described as a point system resembling the Braille character turned on its side. The letters of the New York alphabet are only two points in height, and do not exceed three in length, but the contraction system allows of characters several points long, the spaces between the dots being equal to that between the letters.

Dr. Russ, of New York, who originated the method in 1869, and introduced it into the blind institution there, objected to two points in the Braille system: (1) the arbitrary arrangement of the letters into four rows of ten; (2) that Braille's plan makes each letter occupy the same space, whether consisting of one or six points, and to remedy this defect he suggested that the letters recurring most frequently in the language should be represented by the smallest number of points. For writing he used a modification of the Braille frame, to suit the altered position of his letters.

Dr Russ's alphabet as described above, capital letters and small letters.

That Dr. Russ's system has a great deal to commend it is evidenced by the fact that it took the British and Foreign Blind Association two years to decide as to the respective merits of that and Braille for adoption in England.

It is interesting here to note that the first interlined stereotyped plates made on the principle which is still in use for Braille printing were made by the British and Foreign Blind Association for the New York system.

Dr. Armitage on Types

The following quotations from Dr. Armitage's book as to the results of the two years' investigation above referred to regarding Braille and New York types are interesting:

"1. The gain in space of New York over Braille is said, theoretically, to be 30 per cent. Practically this was found to be somewhat over-estimated. This gain in space is the principal advantage, though there seems also to be a light gain in rapidity of writing. There are, however, some serious disadvantages to compensate for this gain in space.
"The New York system does not lend itself so well to inter-lining as the Braille, in consequence of the difficulty in distinguishing the characters, which are composed entirely of upper or entirely of lower points.
"In distinguishing such characters from each other the reading finger is guided, to a considerable extent, by the interval which occurs between the upper or lower points, as the case may be, and the next line, and, as this is not possible with wide lines, it follows that interlining is not well suited to the New York character; and if we compare the interlined Braille with the close-lined New York, it will be found that the gain in space of the New York has disappeared, while the Braille is far more legible.
"2. The New York system is poorer in signs than the Braille, unless characters four points in length are used, and these are too long to be covered at once by the finger, which is inconvenient; hence, probably, the omission of many punctuation signs in the New York books, which produces inaccuracy and ambiguity.
"3. The correction of written or printed matter is very much more difficult in the New York than in the Braille system--a point of very great practical importance.
"4. As the letters in Braille are formed from each other by a simple rule, this system is more easily learnt than the New York, where there is no such aid to memory.
"5. As the different letters occur with varying frequency in different languages, it follows that, if the New York system were generally adopted, each language would have a different alphabet, and the difficulty of reading foreign languages would thereby be greatly increased.
"6. The Braille system is too firmly rooted in Europe ever to be changed; and it would be a great calamity to the blind to have two point systems, unless the new were greatly superior to the old. This objection applies with still greater force to the musical notation, which ought to be as universal among the blind as it is among the seeing. Great numbers of valuable musical works have already been published in Paris, London, Copenhagen, and elsewhere. These would be illegible by, and useless to, the pupils of an institution using the :New York system for musical notation, the adoption of which could only be excused by great superiority, and it is by no means proved that the New York musical notation is even as good as the Braille.
"About seventeen or eighteen years ago Dr. Russ gave his system to Mr. Wait to be practically tested by the pupils of the New York Institution. Mr. Wait was then, as he still is, the director of that institution. He was at once struck by the vast superiority of a point over a line system, and became an enthusiastic advocate of the only point system with which he had much practical acquaintance. Mr. Wait has ever since been the principal promoter of the adoption of the New York system, and has in no small degree contributed to the popularity which that system has obtained in America. Mr. Wait, believing enthusiastically in the truth of his cause, has pushed it with great energy, and has adapted the system to musical notation. The centralisation of printing in America, which has ensued from the establishment of the American printing-house for the blind at Louisville, while it has conferred great benefits on the United States' institutions, by enabling them to obtain books without payment, has acted unfavourably on a calm and impartial investigation of the subject. The influence there has been strongly in favour of the New York system, and although, theoretically, institutions can order books in whatever type they please, the choice is practically restricted to the New York and Boston types. An institution, therefore, wishing to use the Braille system has no choice but to print for itself or to import from Europe. In either case it has to pay for its books, instead of obtaining them gratuitously, and, in the case of books imported from Europe, it has to pay a heavy customs duty besides.
"Two other point systems were introduced many years ago--one by Mr. Hughes, which has long since become obsolete, and one by the late Abbé Carton, of Bruges, who endeavoured to arrange the points of the Braille letters so as to bear some resemblance to the corresponding roman letters. This similarity, after all, was not striking; but this modification is still used at Bruges, and effectually cuts off the pupils from all the books in their own language printed in Paris.
"Interlining.--The plan of printing with lines widely separated greatly increases legibility, and enables old people to read who would have had difficulty in reading with close lines; it also much diminishes the fatigue of continuous reading. The system now generally adopted by the Association, both for written and printed Braille, is to use both sides of the sheet, allowing the embossed lines of one page to occupy the intervals of those of the other. By this means the interval between the lines is utilised, and a saving of space is effected of 20 per cent.
"Printing.--When Valentin Early first conceived the idea of relief printing on paper, he naturally resorted to movable types on which the ordinary letters were cast in high relief. These types were set exactly like similar type used in printing for the seeing, and the paper impressions were obtained directly from them. This method, which is still used in some countries, both for Braille and the roman letter, has one great disadvantage--that, when the printing of the book is completed, the type is distributed, and, if a fresh edition is required, it can only be printed by the expensive process of setting up the type again. For this reason large editions have to be printed, and, as embossed books are necessarily bulky, much warehouse room is required to store them. To avoid this inconvenience several methods for stereotyping have been introduced. Any embossed printing can be stereotyped by the plan that is often adopted in stereotyping from ordinary printer’s type. Damped paper is laid over the type when set, and beaten with a brush. When dry, this paper mould is used for casting in stereo metal. Another method employed for printing Moon's books is that which was originally introduced by the late Mr. H. Frere; in printing his system, plates of tinned iron are used, which are washed over with a solution of chloride of zinc; then letters formed out of copper wire are laid on, and the plate heated. This causes a partial melting of the surface, and, when the plate is cool, the letters are found to be firmly soldered to it. Nothing can well be imagined better than this method for producing plates to print on the systems of Frere or Moon. In Paris most of the printing is still done directly from movable type, but some books have been printed on one side from brass plates, on which the characters have been raised by placing them in a frame similar to the ordinary writing-frame, the letters being raised by a punch and hammer. The pits on the back of these plates are then filled in with solder, and by this means good and durable stereo-plates are obtained. One or two books have also been produced by a method similar to that used by the British and Foreign Blind Association. This Association printed their first books from brass plates prepared in the way already described, which was suggested by the experience of Paris; but, to avoid trouble and expense of soldering, the pits were filled in with cement, and a sheet of paper was glued on to the back. These plates gave good printing, and have been found durable.
"The frame for producing stereo-plates is very similar to the ordinary interlined writing-frame, only stronger in all its parts. A sheet of brass folded upon itself is placed in the frame and embossed by means of a punch and hammer, in a similar way to that in which a style would be used in writing a single sheet of paper in an ordinary interlining frame. When the first side has been thus written, the double plate is reversed, being brought one line lower by a special arrangement of the clipped pins, and is embossed on the second side. The page number, in ordinary arabic figures, for the guidance of the binder, is now stamped upon the plate, and it is ready for the press without requiring any backing. These plates are prepared entirely by the blind. They are light, inexpensive, and durable, and this process is probably destined to supersede all others for the production of Braille books.
"Interpoint.--M. Ballu, one of the professors of the Paris Institution, has suggested a plan of still further economising space. He embosses on both sides of the paper, but, instead of the lines on the second page occupying the intervals of those on the first, the points occupy partly the interval between the lines, partly the interval between the letters, and partly that between the component points of the letters. Theoretically, the saving is one of 100 per cent over the non-interlined, and of 75 per cent. over the interlined Braille; but practically it does not amount to this, as the intervals between the letters and those between their component points have to be increased in order to allow of the intercalation of the points of the second page. This increase of interval, however, makes the letters more distinct, and therefore allows of the employment of a smaller character. The idea is very ingenious, but the nicety of shift in the frame is so great as practically to offer serious obstacles to its general adoption.*

    *[Dr. Armitage’s criticism has again been found unwarranted, as the Interpoint system is now very commonly used and much liked by the blind.]

"Louis Braille.--As the introduction of the Braille system was the greatest advance that has ever been made in the education of the blind, it may be interesting to give a short account of its author. Louis Braille was born on the 4th January, 1809, at Coupvray, in the Department Seine-et-Marne, about 23 miles from Paris. His father was a harness-maker, and both his parents were well advanced in years at the time of his birth; hence the little boy, like Benjamin, became a great pet. One day, when about three years old, little Louis took it into his head to imitate his father, whom he saw at work, and, as generally happens with children, no sooner had this idea flashed upon his mind than it was put into execution. The work, however, did not progress as favourably as the little lad had expected: the sharp instrument with which he was working slipped, and, flying up, put out one of his eyes. Sympathetic inflammation followed in the other, and soon both eyes were gone. In 1819 he was sent up to the School for the Blind in Paris. He here progressed well in all his studies--literary, musical, and mathematical. He learnt to read by the embossed roman letter, which was exclusively used at that time. Towards the end of his course as a pupil in the Institution he began to study the organ, and he soon became proficient enough to obtain the post of organist in more than one of the churches in Paris. His touch was decided, brilliant, and free, indicating faithfully the whole character of the man. In 1826 Braille was elected professor at the institution at which he had succeeded so well as a pupil. He began by teaching grammar, geography, and arithmetic; later on he taught history, geometry, and algebra, and not only was he an admirable teacher in these subjects, but also formed many excellent pianists. Every day he became more respected and beloved by those who were fortunate enough to be under his instruction. Braille did not confine himself to oral teaching, but also wrote several treatises, and proved himself to be no less able as an author than as a teacher. Among other works he composed an embossed treatise on arithmetic, which is a masterpiece of clearness and precision. "Our method of writing .and printing," he said, "takes up so much space on paper that the fewest possible words must be used to express our thoughts.
"First as a pupil, then as professor in the institution, and even when at home during the vacations, he gave up all his spare time to the finding out of a system by which the blind could write in relief. For this purpose he studied various methods in which arbitrary characters were used. Of these, the one which seemed to lend itself best to relief-writing was one which had been introduced by M. Barbier.
"Ever since the age of 26 years Braille's strength was on the decline. His malady was pulmonary consumption, of which he died in 1852. He was much beloved; there never was a truer or a wiser friend. He was frequently consulted by pupils and teachers, and was always ready to give valuable advice.
"All that was mortal of Louis Braille has long since crumbled into dust, but the influence of his spirit is more widely felt now than at any former period. There is scarcely a school for the blind in the whole world in which his system does not form the basis of education. It is true that in many of the States of North America another point system is used. This, however, is derived from the Braille, and answers much the same objects."

American (Modified) Braille

Modified Braille is the better name for this exceedingly clever and scientific arrangement of Braille's characters, which now numbers among its votaries nineteen of the best schools for the blind in the United States, including no less an institution than that at Boston, where it was invented by a blind teacher named J. W. Smith in 1878.

To write on a Braille tablet begin at the right; to read, reverse the sheet and begin at the left. In either case the six points of which the characters are formed are numbered from the top, 1, 2, 3, for the first vertical row, and 4, 5, 6, for the second.

Alphabet

The braille alphabet.

To capitalise a letter prefix to it points 3 and 6.

Marks of punctuation

Punctuation in braille.

The apostrophe is point 4. The other marks, except the exclamation, are formed of points 2, 3, 5, and 6.

When two or more initial letters requiring the capital sign occur together, the space which separates words may be omitted; the period which follows the first letter then becomes also the prefix, or capital sign for the next; thus F.R.S.:

Braille example.

Numerals

When alone or in combination the following letters, if prefixed by the numeral sign, become numbers.

Examples of numbers.

Initial letters used as word signs

Examples of words.

When the above words are parts of other words the initial letter must not be used as a representative ; e,g. [“know”] when standing alone represents "know," but " knowledge " should be written

Braille example.

Other characters used as word and part-word signs

Contractions for short words.

The following characters, with one exception, are formed of points 2, 3, 5, and 6. When separated from words by the omission of a cell, they are word-signs, as follows:

Short words.

The letter x, when standing alone is used as an asterisk.

The letter d followed by a period is used as the dollar sign and should be immediately followed by the numeral sign; thus--

Braille example.

An italicised word is indicated by the prefix of point 6.

Lines of poetry are separated by the omission of three cells.

The capital sign preceding a contraction capitalises only the first letter of the contraction.

The ordinary rules of grammar should be closely followed; hence correct syllabication must be observed, and a monosyllable should never be divided.

Strict conformity to general grammatical laws, and the special rules preceding, are essential to a correct use of the American Braille, and the use of signs in any other way than that hereby authorised is as inelegant and incorrect as similar changes in ordinary writing.

It will be at once noticed that the most frequently recurring letters are represented by the smallest points. This arrangement gives to a page of embossed reading a more open appearance both to eye and finger, and, to the latter especially, greatly simplifies the task of reading; not only so, but it makes a greatly diminished call on the nerves of the reader.

There is also a great saving of time in writing, as compared with English Braille, owing to the smaller number of points requiring to be made. Whilst on the other hand it is argued that by far the greater amount of Braille literature being produced by printing or typewriters, on which the whole character is struck at once, the saving in time is nil--on the score of a few points per character--still we are assured by those who have had considerable experience in the use of typewriters and stereo machines, that the expenditure of physical and nerve power is not nearly so great when working on modified as on the original Braille, owing doubtless to the fact that fewer dots have to be thought and fewer keys depressed.

It is a matter for great regret that, at the revision of Braille in this country was in progress, advantage was not taken of the willingness of our American cousins to unite in a compromise, in order to establish a universal system of Braille, so that the books of the two continents might be interchangeable. It is not too much to hope, however, as the superiority of the modified Braille is slowly but surely making itself felt on the other side of the Atlantic, and that to such an extent that its universal adoption in America is only the matter of a few years, we may in this country, by and by, throw off our insular conservatism, and, in the interests of common sense and the general good of the reading blind, agree upon a system which shall be both scientific and dignified, and thus bring about in the world of Braille literature a condition of cosmos out of chaos and of "Peace with Honour."

Music notations

It was but natural that the first attempts to provide the blind with a musical notation should have been adaptations of the system--lines and spaces--of staff notation in use for the sighted, by means of printing in relief. It is absolutely essential, however, for rapid reading by the finger, that all the characters shall be in line, and shall be readily covered by the finger without the necessity of moving it up and down. If blind musicians, however, are to be competent to teach the seeing, they must have a sufficient knowledge of the staff notation to enable them to explain it to their pupils, and for this purpose specimens of this notation in relief are useful.

Nearly all those who have introduced special characters for ordinary reading by touch have also adapted their system to musical notation: Lucas, Frere, and Moon, for example; but none of these are of any practical value, having been entirely superseded by the Braille system.

Louis Braille worked out the system which bears his name. It was gradually adopted at the Paris Institution, where its introduction was greatly facilitated by the fact that most of the music professors there were blind, and were willing to test carefully a plan recommended by one of themselves. It is probable that much of the success off the pupils of that institution was due to the adoption of a system by which they were able to read and write music with rapidity and ease.

The basis* of the musical notation is the ordinary Braille alphabet, arranged in four rows containing ten letters each. The seven last letters in each row represent the seven musical notes--those of the first row being quavers; those of the second, minims; those of the third, crotchets; and those of the fourth, semibreves or semiquavers. The latter duplication of values leads to no complication, as any one acquainted with even the rudiments of music knows that a bar consisting of one semiquaver or sixteen semibreves is an impossibility. The notes take up twenty-eight signs, leaving thirty-three for other signs necessary, each sign occupying only the space of one letter.

As will be seen from the following pages, music in Braille does not occupy more space than the same music in ordinary print for the seeing; and it can be produced at a price not exceeding that charged for ordinary music to the profession--in fact much of it costs much less.

The braille musical alphabet.

Example in braille and ordinary music.

Professions and Trades

Music

The piano and organ are the principal instruments by means of which a blind person may expect to earn a living. Paris was the first institution to realise this, and it is before all else a school of music, training 60 per cent. of its pupils for this calling. Judged by after results, however, it is doubtful if the policy is a wise one, as probably not 20 per cent. of these are ever able to support themselves as respectable musicians.

The Royal Normal College at Upper Norwood has an excellent record with regard to the financial success of its late students. In 1884, twelve years after its foundation, it was able to boast that former pupils were earning in the aggregate well over £6,000 per annum.

The Royal Blind Asylum and School, West Craigmillar, also holds the proud position of having been able since 1890 to satisfactorily place every music student who completed his course, either as an organist or piano-tuner, and every one of them who is living is doing well and is entirely self-supporting, many having raised themselves to excellent positions, professionally and socially.

Several of the English institutions have excellent music-schools, for training organists and piano-tuners, notably Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester, Birmingham, Nottingham, Sheffield, York, Leatherhead, Exeter, Swiss Cottage, and Liverpool.

To ensure a large measure of success among pupils after they leave a blind music-school the following considerations are necessary:

1. The aim must be to form musical artists who shall not be inferior to seeing artists trained at the best conservatoires.

2. The school must contain a large number of pupils, so that properly graded classes may be formed.

3. The school must have a very large income, in order to command the services of the best teachers, and to possess pianos and organs in sufficient numbers to give each pupil the opportunity of some hours' daily practice.

4. The kindergarten and literary work should also be thoroughly good.

5. Careful attention to personal appearance and the cultivation of good manners and a polite bearing are essentials to success, and this should be insisted on by the teachers.

Whilst it may with some justice be urged that piano-tuners are not musicians and should not be classed as belonging to the musical profession, still they appear to fall most naturally under that head; and it is, to say the least of it, a wise measure for every young man in training as an organist or pianist to learn pianoforte-tuning also as a stand-by. There are many cases on record where the stand-by has proved the more lucrative of the two, for a young man so equipped. The first blind piano-tuner of whom any record remains was

Claude Montal,

who, about the year 1830, along with a fellow pupil at the Paris School, attempted to tune a piano on which they practised. It, as well as the other pianos in the institution, was kept in very indifferent tune by a seeing tuner. This man complained to the director, who administered a sharp reprimand to the two blind pupils, forbidding them ever again to interfere with the " action" of the piano.

Nothing daunted, however, the two friends procured an old piano for themselves, and obtained permission to keep it in the institution. Again and again they dissected and rebuilt the instrument, until they thoroughly understood the relations of all the component parts. They then proceeded to repair what was broken and to supply what was missing, nor were they content till they had put the instrument in perfect working order, and brought it into good tune.

As the director had daily observed the lads at their work, he knew it was by their own unaided efforts such a remarkable result had been achieved.. Struck with their talent, he entrusted to them some considerable repairs in the chapel organ. The experiment proved perfectly successful, it being acknowledged that no professional organ-builder could have done his work in a more masterly manner.

By degrees they obtained permission to keep all the pianos of the house in tune, and to make whatever little repairs were necessary. The next step was to begin regular instruction in tuning, and thus commenced the tuning classes which made the Paris School famous all over the world. Montal soon left the institution, and endeavoured to obtain a private tuning connection. He was met, however, by the unreasoning popular prejudice against blind tuners which still exists to-day. A mere accident--as it appeared--brought him into prominence and established his success. One of the professors of the Conservatoire of Music had two pianos of totally different construction which he required to be in exact tune, the one with the other. All the seeing tuners he tried absolutely failed in this, and so he sent for Montal, who, after a careful examination of the differences in their construction, tuned the instruments in exact accord, to the great delight of the professor. Other professors now employed him, and, at the great Exhibition in 1834, most of the makers had their pianos tuned by him.

In our own country one of the most remarkable cases of success achieved by a blind pianoforte-tuner is that of Captain Gosley.

Whilst a young officer on board a merchant ship, Captain Gosley (for he held his master's certificate, though acting as mate) lost his sight. He was rejected as an impossible case by a prominent music-school in England, and turned, almost in despair, to West Craigmillar, where, after only a few months' training, he boldly went out into the world to seek his fortune as a tuner. He met with immediate success. He worked early and late, and in a few years obtained all the pianos in the Edinburgh board schools to tune by contract, and established an excellent family connection, travelling alone, as far into the country as Berwick-on-Tweed. He is popular wherever he goes, and probably, so far as financial success is concerned, stands at the very top of blind piano-tuners.

Massage

For many years the blind of Japan held a monopoly of this employment in that country. Only in comparatively recent years has it been introduced into this country as a means of livelihood for the blind.

It has been extensively taught at Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester, and the young women trained there have been very successful, both as private practitioners and as masseuses in hydropathics, baths, etc.

An Institute for Massage by the Blind has been formed in London for training the blind of both sexes in this branch of work, under the care of Mrs. MacNicol, 71, Bolsover Street, London, W. The training is superintended by Dr. Fletcher Little. For young blind persons of good physique and intelligence, and with a sufficient amount of tact, patience, and, above all, a polite, genial manner, there is no better or more lucrative form of employment. Great care should be taken, however, that a certificate of efficiency in this art is never granted without a most searching examination as to qualifications and character.

Teaching

There is little doubt that for the teaching of those subjects which require the use of special apparatus, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic, the well-trained blind teacher is the equal or superior of his seeing colleague. [See Paris paper, p. 157.] And many experts are agreed that the authorities or committees of schools and institutions for the blind who decline the services of blind teachers are literally and theoretically, standing in their own light. One blind teacher to two seeing, is a most desirable combination.

Handicrafts

After the first attempts at literary education of the blind by Valentin Haüy and others, the attention of those in charge of institutions for those deprived of sight appears to have been mainly concentrated on instruction in handicrafts or trades which might provide a means of livelihood to those with sufficient ability and perseverance to learn them.

Some of the earliest occupations adopted for this purpose were spinning, weaving, list-rug-making, and shoe-making. Then followed basket-making, mat- and matting-making, and, later still, pianoforte-tuning. The manufacture of bedding also appears to have been early in the field, especially in Edinburgh and Glasgow, where it still flourishes as the best and most lucrative form of blind industry.

Speaking at a conference held in York in 1883, Mr. William Martin, for over thirty years manager of the Edinburgh Blind Asylum, said, "Speaking generally, and having in view the greatest possible good to the largest number, it is safe to place the manufacture of bedding decidedly to the front as one of the most suitable handicrafts for the blind--easy of acquirement, in constant demand, returning fair remuneration to the workers, yielding a good profit to the institution, and affording work for both males and females."

So great has been the progress in this branch of work in the Glasgow Asylum, that at the present time over thirty women are kept constantly at work, at sewing-machines driven by electricity, making tickings for beds, pillows, etc.

Brush-making is much taught and followed as a trade, both in English, Scotch, and Irish institutions and workshops. In some, as at Birmingham, Cornwallis Street, Liverpool, and Belfast Workshops, for instance, it is looked upon as the best employment from a financial point of view, both in regard to employer and employed; but in the majority of cases it is adopted as an occupation only.

Basket-making, again, is the staple employment in many blind workshops, as for instance Manchester, Leicester, Nottingham, Leeds, and Bradford; whilst mat- and matting-making follow as a good second--in fact, at the Cornwallis Street workshops in Liverpool this industry is considered one of the best, as at Henshaw's Blind Asylum, Manchester. The fancy mat- and rug-making of the School for the Indigent Blind, Leatherhead, are a marvel of achievement in this connection.

Chair-seating in cane and rush, along with hand knitting, sewing, and brush-making were, until comparatively recent times, almost the only employments open to blind women, apart from the manufacture of bedding; but now the sewing and knitting-machines, copying of Braille books, typewriting, massage, Swedish weaving, and light basket-making occupy many.

Weaving and shoe-making, whilst being, as already stated, and as a reference to Dr. Guillé's books written in 1819 sufficiently testifies, very old occupations for the blind, are generally looked upon nowadays as quite a modern idea for blind employment. It seems strange that such excellent and useful handicrafts should have been given up so soon, especially when, as it would appear, the inmates of the Edinburgh Institution were able, in the closing years of the eighteenth century, to make all the towelling and much of the bed-linen and clothing materials used in the establishment.

List of Employments

The following is a list of employments in which the blind of Great Britain and Ireland are engaged:

MEN

Basket-making.
Bedding-making.
Braille-printing.
Braille-writing.
Brush-making.
Cabinet-making.
Chair-seating. -
Mat-making.
Matting-making.
Rug-making.
Sack-making.
Ship-fender-making.
Shoe-making and repairing.
Tea-hawking.
Upholstery.

Higher Branches

Holy Orders.
Law.
Massage.
Music.
Piano-tuning.
Teaching.

WOMEN

Basket-making (light).
Bedding-making.
Braille-writing.
Brush-making.
Chair-seating.
Crochet.
Knitting (hand and machine).
Macramé lace-making.
Netting.
Rug-work.
Straw-plaiting.
Straw-bag-making.
String-bag-making.
Swedish weaving.
Typewriting.
Upholstery.

Higher Branches

Massage.
Music.
Teaching.

Revision of Braille

No event in the history of the education of the blind should be of more real interest to teachers than the revisal of the Braille system, which was. completed by the British Braille Committee early in 1905, and authorised by the Edinburgh Conference of that year as orthodox Braille for educational and other purposes in Grades I. and II., and referred to the British and Foreign Blind Association for publication.

This revision constitutes, such an epoch in the history of the education of the blind that a résumé of the chain of circumstances which led up to it is essential.

In January, 1893, there emanated from the Braille publishing office of the Royal Blind Asylum and School, West Craigmillar, Edinburgh, the first number of the now well-known monthly magazine Hora Jucunda, designed, as it then was, on the lines of “Tit Bits” (the popular weekly for the sighted). It was the first blind periodical of such a nature, and its correspondence column was eagerly taken advantage of by subscribers.

As might have been expected, the incongruities of written and printed Braille soon became the chief topic of discussion, and, as the letters and editorials on this subject really formed the embryo from which the British Braille Committee developed, we copy them--at any rate in their early stages.*

    *[We have only space here for a small portion of the correspondence which appeared at the time; but we give sufficient for our purpose.]

    [Digitiser’s note: in the following correspondence, the punctuation has been kept as it was in the original. The names of publications like “Hora Jucunda” might not be marked]

Our English Braille

    Letter to the Editor, March, 1893

“DEAR SIR,--May I be allowed to say a word on the above subject ? The thanks of the blind are due to the British and Foreign Blind Association for introducing the Braille type into this country; but in the matter of contractions that body has not always acted with that clearness and precision which one could have wished. The arbitrary rules which they drew up have been often violated by them in the printing of their books. Now this leads to confusion. It is worthy of note that you will hardly get two people to write contracted Braille in the same way, and the editors of Santa Lucia have by no means simplified the matter. I would be glad to interchange opinions with your subscribers on the subject.
"Yours, etc., A. C."
Editorial, April, 1893
"It seems to us that the subject of contractions, now being discussed, is one which deserves the attention of every thinking blind person. It is time the question was settled, and, as Hora Jucunda finds its way into almost every school for the blind in the kingdom, we think our pages a very fitting place for the controversy to be thrashed out, a unanimous conclusion arrived at, and a universal system adopted.
"Will all our readers therefore take up the matter with heart and soul, and send us their opinions. The B.F.B.A. is no longer the only Braille fountain, and, as experience teaches wisdom, so we cannot, for all time, adopt an arbitrary system of contractions which these would-be autocrats have chosen to lay down, but which they, in their publications, honour almost as much in the breach as in the observance."

    Letters to the Editor, April, 1893

"DEAR SIR,--The subject to which ‘A.C.’ invited the attention of your readers is one, I think, which deserves their careful consideration. The present is perhaps a good time for re-opening the question, as the B.F.B.A. does not now hold the field unchallenged, other printing-presses having been introduced--silent witnesses that the principle of decentralisation is a dominant factor in the life of to-day. The subject can well bear discussion, and your columns furnish the best means for carrying it on. Well, sir, how shall we best approach the subject ? May I offer a few suggestions which may serve as a nucleus from which a healthy discussion may grow. 1. Contractions written in the lower cells should not be followed by punctuations. 2. The omission of vowels should be deprecated, at any rate where there is risk of ambiguity. 3. Contractions which would interfere with the proper syllabising of words should not be used. I trust these suggestions will serve the purpose intended.
"Yours, etc., G. D."
"DEAR MR. EDITOR,--In your issue for March I observe a letter signed ‘A.C.’ on the above subject. I feel sure you will recognise its importance, and I know of no better place for its discussion than the pages of H.J. ‘A.C.’ is right in saying that you will hardly get two people to write contracted Braille alike, but it cannot be otherwise as the matter now stands.
"The rules are multitudinous and confusing, and are the main cause of the inconsistencies referred to. A single instance will suffice for the present. The rule with regard to lower-letter contractions is that two shall not follow each other in succession. How is it possible to adhere to that rule and always write the same word in the same way?
Progress, the organ of the B.F.B.A., in its March issue, criticises H.J., favourably on the whole, but takes exceptions to the contractions used. 'People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.' I venture to think that H.J. is the more correctly printed of the two magazines. The Association violates its own rules in every page of its publications. In this very number of Progress I see proper names contracted as often as not, and the terminal contractions are not confined to the end of words, as, for example, page 23, line 16, 't:ngue,' and page 36, line 6, 'occa:al,' etc. 'St' and 'ch' are contracted before and after 'a,' and also before the comma. The spacing is irregular, as many as three spaces being left blank here and there between words in the middle of sentences. One point in the review is particularly noticeable: 'Some contractions,' it says, 'are used which were adopted by the Association, but were afterwards discarded by us. Query: what are they, and when, or by whom was the Association invested with authority to introduce or discard contractions at will? Apologising for taking up so much of your valuable space,
"I am, yours, etc., J. B."

    Letter to the Editor, May, 1893

"DEAR SIR,--I rejoice to read the vigorous protest which is at last being made in the pages of H.J. against the unwarrantable assumption of infallibility by the B.F.B.A., and I hope that now the blind have found a competent leader, the genius and common sense of the many will triumph over the caprice of the few. I should like to add two suggestions to those of ‘G.D.’ 1. Punctuation marks should be allowed to follow numbers, in the interest of correct representation of ordinary print. 2. There is still room for new contractions, and it would be well to consider those adopted by the editors of Santa Lucia. The rule. of the B.F.B.A. emended to my first suggestion prevented me for a long while from knowing that I ought to write my address with a comma after the number of the house. With regard to my second suggestion, if we write 'rcv' for 'receive,' why not 'dcv' for 'deceive,' and so forth? I would also propose a modification of ‘G.D.’s’ first suggestion: namely, ‘Contractions written in the lower cells should not be followed by punctuation marks which involve a bottom dot.' I see no objection to writing 'oft en,' 'often,' though 't en.' is objectionable. Vowels should be missed with discretion. I should like to use the letter 'r' for 're ' at the beginning of a word: e.g. 'rpeat' for 'repeat.' I should like to point out that the B.F.B.A. has gone so far as to print books already stereotyped in Braille. Many years ago the Greek Gospels were printed at Worcester, well enough to supply the requirements of any student, except in the matter of accents: in spite of this the B.F.B.A. is printing them afresh, from pure love of autocracy. The same remark applies to 'Caesar's Gallic War,' books I. and II.
"Yours truly, T. B."

    Letter to the Editor, June, 1893

“DEAR SIR,--The first suggestion given us by 'G.D.' is simply a repetition of one of the rules laid down by the B.F.B.A.: 'Punctuation marks should not precede or follow signs of line 5.' (See table of contractions.) But my contention in this connection lies here, that on the very page where the law is so clearly stated we find it also violated. Respecting the omission of vowels, it is very easy to see how you may lead to ambiguity there. There are nineteen words (and their compounds) in which the letters 'ea' are omitted. Few have been able to see, however, why these particular words have been selected to the exclusion of others similarly spelt. It has therefore become customary to omit 'ea' in quite a number of words. I distinctly remember reading in the Bible about the man that 'fred' the Lord. Certainly this looks very much like 'Frederick' shortened. 'Hd' stands for 'head' and 'gd' for ' good' ; the only point of similarity between these two words is the fact they both contain four letters, and it seems strange to me that they should have been made to look so like each other in Braille. To attempt to-remodel our system, however, at this time of day, would be a very serious matter indeed, and certainly this was not my idea when I started this discussion. Though the B.F.B.A. is not the only Braille fountain, still it was the first, and all other Presses have gone upon their lines, more or less. What we want is uniformity in printing; if we could get the London people to adhere to their own rules, and co-operate with us in working out some minor improvements, we will have gained a great deal.
"I am, yours, A. C."

    Editorial, September, 1893

[In reply--in part, to a letter which appeared in the Leeds Mercury.]
"Scarcely has our good barque H.J. been launched on the billowy sea of literature, than it is assailed by a storm of criticism no less unreasonable than it is unjust. Were it not that our timbers are bound and welded together by the kindly support and encouraging words of the majority of our readers, and the motive power supplied by an ardent desire to serve our fellow men in our day and generation, we might have gone down before the mighty blast. We have ventured to strike out a new and original line--as far as this country is concerned at least--in the history of Braille literature, by providing a magazine at a cheap rate which will make a blind man laugh like an ordinary mortal, which will enable him to procure intellectual food of a light and pleasant kind, and this without driving him to the necessity of procuring a reader. Worst sin of all: we have opened a correspondence column wherein the Valentin Haüys, Brailles, Alstons, and Moons of the present generation may ventilate their ideas for the benefit of their fellows. During the past few months a number of letters have appeared on the all-important, and what should be to the intelligent blind person, all-engrossing subject, 'Our English Braille.' We will not attempt to descant upon the various merits and demerits of the said letters. But we would note in passing that it has been a matter of great surprise and some regret that more of the educated blind in Great Britain and Ireland have not taken up the cause with zeal and enthusiasm .... We now lay the 'rules of the B.F.B.A. on contracted Braille' before our readers, beginning with the October issue, and in the meantime we shall take measures for ensuring the consideration of these rules, with a view to. confirmation or alteration by the Braille-reading blind of the three kingdoms: and, as our only and inspiring motive is to procure ‘the greatest possible good for the greatest number,’ we sincerely trust that we shall have the hearty co-operation of all interested in the welfare, and more especially in the higher education of the blind. And this is our plan:
"1. A Union is to be formed in connection with Hora Jucunda, which will be termed 'Our English Braille Union.' The only condition of membership of this Union will be 'a tolerable knowledge of Braille writing.' We shall judge as to competence in individual cases, and our local secretaries where branch clubs are established.
"2. This will be wherever circumstances enable a number of our readers to confer together, as in institutions, workshops, and outdoor societies.
"3. As the various rules are printed in H.J., they will be considered and thoroughly discussed by the various members of the Union, and the decisions for and against, and any suggestions relating thereto, will be transmitted to us by the local secretaries, or, in individual cases, by the subscribers themselves.
"4. These 'ayes ' and 'noes ' will be published the following month, along with any new idea, which will come in for its share of scrutiny at the same time as the second batch of rules; and so forth.
"5. We shall send a printed copy of this editorial to al the masters and managers of institutions as well as to all missionaries to the outdoor blind, so far as we can, earnestly imploring their interest and co-operation. We do most heartily beg of our readers not to go away with the idea that we are propagating a scheme which will render the perusal of present Braille literature impossible to the rising generation, but one which will give to our English Braille a foundation, a uniformity, a symmetrical grandeur worthy of itself and of the Paris genius who left us a legacy of more value far than 'the wealth of all the Indies.'
"We do also implore you to come to the consideration of this vital question with a pure heart, with a mind unsullied by bias or prejudice. It is not a party question, for this Association or that--it is cosmopolitan in the purest sense of the word; and, in seeking to extend the franchise